1. Introduction

1.1. The Indo-European Language Family

In dark, countries with a majority of Indo-European speakers; in light color, countries with Indo-European-speaking minorities.

1.1.1. The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred languages and dialects, including most of the major languages of Europe, as well as many in Asia. Contemporary languages in this family include English, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Hindustani (i.e., Hindi and Urdu among other modern dialects), Persian and Russian. It is the largest family of languages in the world today, being spoken by approximately half the world’s population as first language. Furthermore, the majority of the other half speaks at least one of them as second language.

1.1.2. Romans didn’t perceive similarities between Latin and Celtic dialects, but they found obvious correspondences with Greek. After Roman Grammarian Sextus Pompeius Festus:

Suppum antiqui dicebant, quem nunc supinum dicimus ex Graeco, videlicet pro adspiratione ponentes <s> litteram, ut idem ὕλας dicunt, et nos silvas; item ἕξ sex, et ἑπτά septem.

Such findings are not striking, though, as Rome was believed to have been originally funded by Trojan hero Aeneas and, consequently, Latin was derived from Old Greek.

1.1.3. Florentine merchant Filippo Sassetti travelled to the Indian subcontinent, and was among the first European observers to study the ancient Indian language, Sanskrit. Writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between Sanskrit and Italian, e.g. deva/dio, “God”, sarpa/serpe, “snake”, sapta/sette, “seven”, ashta/otto, “eight”, nava/nove, “nine”. This observation is today credited to have foreshadowed the later discovery of the Indo-European language family.

1.1.4. The first proposal of the possibility of a common origin for some of these languages came from Dutch linguist and scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn in 1647. He discovered the similarities among Indo-European languages, and supposed the existence of a primitive common language which he called “Scythian”. He included in his hypothesis Dutch, Greek, Latin, Persian, and German, adding later Slavic, Celtic and Baltic languages. He excluded languages such as Hebrew from his hypothesis. However, the suggestions of van Boxhorn did not become widely known and did not stimulate further research.

1.1.5. On 1686, German linguist Andreas Jäger published De Lingua Vetustissima Europae, where he identified an remote language, possibly spreading from the Caucasus, from which Latin, Greek, Slavic, ‘Scythian’ (i.e., Persian) and Celtic (or ‘Celto-Germanic’) were derived, namely Scytho-Celtic.

1.1.6. The hypothesis re-appeared in 1786 when Sir William Jones first lectured on similarities between four of the oldest languages known in his time: Latin, Greek, Sanskrit and Persian:

“The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists: there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family”

1.1.7. Danish Scholar Rasmus Rask was the first to point out the connection between Old Norwegian and Gothic on the one hand, and Lithuanian, Slavonic, Greek and Latin on the other. Systematic comparison of these and other old languages conducted by the young German linguist Franz Bopp supported the theory, and his Comparative Grammar, appearing between 1833 and 1852, counts as the starting-point of Indo-European studies as an academic discipline.

1.1.8. The classification of modern Indo-European dialects into ‘languages’ and ‘dialects’ is controversial, as it depends on many factors, such as the pure linguistic ones – most of the times being the least important of them –, and also social, economic, political and historical considerations. However, there are certain common ancestors, and some of them are old well-attested languages (or language systems), such as Classic Latin for modern Romance languages – French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Romanian or Catalan –, Classic Sanskrit for some modern Indo-Aryan languages, or Classic Greek for Modern Greek.

Furthermore, there are some still older IE ‘dialects’, from which these old formal languages were derived and later systematized. They are, following the above examples, Archaic or Old Latin, Archaic or Vedic Sanskrit and Archaic or Old Greek, attested in older compositions, inscriptions and inferred through the study of oral traditions and texts.

And there are also some old related dialects, which help us reconstruct proto-languages, such as Faliscan for Latino-Faliscan (and with Osco-Umbrian for an older Proto-Italic), the Avestan language for a Proto-Indo-Iranian or Mycenaean for an older Proto-Greek.

NOTE. Although proto-language groupings for early Indo-European languages may vary depending on different criteria, they all have the same common origin, the Proto-Indo-European language, which is generally easier to reconstruct than its dialectal groupings. For example, if we had only some texts of Old French, Old Spanish and Old Portuguese, Mediaeval Italian and Modern Romanian and Catalan, then Vulgar Latin – i.e. the features of the common language spoken by all of them, not the older, artificial, literary Classical Latin – could be easily reconstructed, but the groupings of the derived dialects not. In fact, the actual groupings of the Romance languages are controversial, even knowing well enough Archaic, Classic and Vulgar Latin...

Distribution of language families in the 20^th century.

1.2. Traditional Views

1.2.1. In the beginnings of the Indo-European or Indo-Germanic studies using the comparative grammar, the Indo-European proto-language was reconstructed as a unitary language. For Rask, Bopp and other Indo-European scholars, it was a search for the Indo-European. Such a language was supposedly spoken in a certain region between Europe and Asia and at one point in time – between ten thousand and four thousand years ago, depending on the individual theories –, and it spread thereafter and evolved into different languages which in turn had different dialects.

1.2.2. The Stammbaumtheorie or Genealogical Tree Theory states that languages split up in other languages, each of them in turn split up in others, and so on, like the branches of a tree. For example, a well known old theory about Indo-European is that, from the Indo-European language, two main groups of dialects known as Centum and Satem separated – so called because of their pronunciation of the gutturals in Latin and Avestan, as in PIE km̥tóm, “hundred”. From these groups others split up, as Centum Proto-Germanic, Proto-Italic or Proto-Celtic, and Satem Proto-Balto-Slavic, Proto-Indo-Iranian, which developed into present-day Germanic, Romance and Celtic, Baltic, Slavic, Iranian and Indo-Aryan languages.

Modern tree diagram of the IE languages by Eric Hamp (1990).

NOTE. The Centum and Satem isogloss is one of the oldest known phonological differences of Indo-European languages, and is still used by many to classify them in two groups, thus disregarding their relevant morphological and syntactical differences. It is based on a simple vocabulary comparison; as, from PIE km̥tóm (possibly earlier *dkm̥tóm, from dekm̥, “ten”), Satem: O.Ind. śatám, Av. satəm, Lith. šimtas, O.C.S. sto, or Centum: Gk. ἑκατόν, Lat. centum, Goth. hund, O.Ir. cet, etc.

1.2.3. The Wellentheorie or Waves Theory, of J. Schmidt, states that one language is created from another by the spread of innovations, the way water waves spread when a stone hits the water surface. The lines that define the extension of the innovations are called isoglosses. The convergence of different isoglosses over a common territory signals the existence of a new language or dialect. Where isoglosses from different languages coincide, transition zones are formed.

“Wave model” of some of the interrelationships of the Indo-European languages, J.P.Mallory and D.Q. Adams.

NOTE. These old theories are based on the hypothesis that there was one common and static Proto-Indo-European language, and that all features of modern Indo-European languages can be explained in such a unitary scheme, by classifying them either as innovations or as archaisms of one old, rigid proto-language. The language system we propose for the revived Modern Indo-European is based mainly on that traditionally reconstructed Proto-Indo-European, not because we uphold the traditional views, but because we still look for the immediate common ancestor of modern Indo-European languages, and it is that old, unitary Indo-European that scholars had been looking for during the first decades of Indo-European studies.

1.3. The Theory of the Three Stages

1.3.1. Even some of the first Indo-Europeanists had noted in their works the possibility of older origins for the reconstructed (Late) Proto-Indo-European, although they didn’t dare to describe those possible older stages of the language.

Expansion of IE 4000BC-1 AD, according to the Kurgan hypothesis.

1.3.2. Today, a widespread Three-Stage Theory depicts the Proto-Indo-European language evolution into three main historic layers or stages:

1) Indo-European I or IE I, also called Early PIE, is the hypothetical ancestor of IE II, and probably the oldest stage of the language that comparative linguistics could help reconstruct using internal reconstruction. There is, however, no common position as to how it was like or when and where it was spoken.

2) The second stage (3500-3000 BC) corresponds to a time before the separation of Proto-Anatolian from the common linguistic community where it coexisted with Pre-IE III. That stage of the language is called Indo-European II or IE II, Middle PIE, or Indo-Hittite. This is identified with the early Kurgan cultures in the Kurgan Hypothesis’ framework.

3) The common immediate ancestor of the earliest known IE proto-languages –more or less the same static PIE searched for since the start of Indo-European studies – is usually called Late PIE, also Indo-European III or IE III, often simply Proto-Indo-European. Its prehistoric community of speakers is generally identified with the Yamna or Pit Grave culture (cf. Ukr. яма, “pit”), in the Pontic Steppe, roughly between 3000-2500 BC. Pre-Proto-Anatolian speakers are arguably identified with the – already independent – Maykop cultural community.

NOTE. The development of this theory of three linguistic stages can be traced back to the very origins of Indo-European studies, firstly as a diffused idea of a non-static language, and later widely accepted as a dynamic dialectal evolution, already in the 20^th century, after the discovery of the Anatolian scripts.

1.3.3. Another division has to be made, so that the dialectal evolution and this revival project is properly understood. Late PIE had at least two main dialectal branches, the Northern (or IE IIIb) and the Southern (or IE IIIa) ones. Terms like Northwestern PIE are commonly found in academic writings referring to the Northern Dialect, but we will use them here to name only the northern dialects of Europe, therefore excluding Tocharian. As far as we know, while speakers of Southern or Graeco-Aryan dialects (like Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian) spread in different directions with the first Late PIE migrations ca. 2500 BC, speakers of Northern dialects remained still in loose contact in Europe, but for peoples like Proto-Tocharians who migrated to Asia. That so-called Europe’s Indo-European – the ancestor of Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Baltic and Slavic dialects – is believed to have formed the last common Indo-European dialect continuum from ca. 2500-2000 BC in Northern Europe.

Spread of Late PIE dialects and Common Anatolian by ca. 2000 BC.

NOTE 1. On the so-called “Northwest Indo-European”, see N. Oettinger “Grundsätzliche überlegungen zum Nordwest-Indogermanischen” in Incontri Linguistici 20 1997, and “Zum nordwestindogermanischen Lexikon” in FS Meid 70 1999. See also M. E. Huld in Indo-Europeanization of Northern Europe 1996; Adrados, Bernabé, Mendoza, Manual de Lingüística Indoeuropea, 1998; etc. Europe’s Indo-European dialects show some common features, like a general reduction of the 8-case noun inflection system, the -r endings of the middle voice, as well as the lack (or late development) of satemization. The southern dialects, in turn, show a generalized Augment in é-, a general Aorist formation and an 8-case system –apparently also in Proto-Greek.

NOTE 2. European dialects like Balto-Slavic and, to some extent, Italic, either because of general PIE innovative or archaic trends that only they maintained, or because of their original situation within the PIE dialectal territories in relation with the origin of the innovations – or just because they remained in contact with Southern Indo-European dialects after the first PIE split (e.g. through the Scythian or Iranian expansions) – show features usually identified with Indo-Iranian, as an 8-case noun declension and phonetic satemization, while having morphological features clearly common to Germanic and Celtic dialects, as the verbal system.

Indo-European dialects ca. 500 BC.

NOTE 3. The term Indo-European itself now current in English literature, was coined in 1813 by the British scholar Sir Thomas Young, although at that time there was no consensus as to the naming of the recently discovered language family. Among the names suggested were indo-germanique (C. Malte-Brun, 1810), Indoeuropean (Th. Young, 1813), japetisk (Rasmus C. Rask, 1815), indisch-teutsch (F. Schmitthenner, 1826), sanskritisch (Wilhelm von Humboldt, 1827), indokeltisch (A. F. Pott, 1840), arioeuropeo (G. I. Ascoli, 1854), Aryan (F. M. Müller, 1861), aryaque (H. Chavée, 1867), etc.

In English, Indo-German was used by J. C. Prichard in 1826 although he preferred Indo-European. In French, use of indo-européen was established by A. Pictet (1836). In German literature, Indo-Europäisch was used by Franz Bopp since 1835, while the term Indo-Germanisch had already been introduced by Julius von Klapproth in 1823, intending to include the northernmost and the southernmost of the family’s branches, as it were as an abbreviation of the full listing of involved languages that had been common in earlier literature, opening the doors to ensuing fruitless discussions whether it should not be Indo-Celtic, or even Tocharo-Celtic.

Indo-European dialects ca. 1500 AD.

Indo-European dialects ca. 500 AD.

1.4. The Proto-Indo-European Urheimat or ‘Homeland’

1.4.1. The search for the Urheimat or ‘Homeland’ of the prehistoric Proto-Indo-Europeans has developed as an archaeological quest along with the linguistic research looking for the reconstruction of that proto-language.

Photo of a Kurgan ( Archaeology Magazine).

1.4.2. The Kurgan hypothesis was introduced by Marija Gimbutas in 1956 in order to combine archaeology with linguistics in locating the origins of the Proto-Indo-Europeans. She named the set of cultures in question “Kurgan” after their distinctive burial mounds and traced their diffusion into Europe.

1.4.3. According to her hypothesis, PIE speakers were probably a nomadic tribe of the Pontic-Caspian steppe that expanded in successive stages of the Kurgan culture and three successive “waves” of expansion during the 3^rd millennium BC:

· Kurgan I, Dnieper/Volga region, earlier half of the 4^th millennium BC. Apparently evolving from cultures of the Volga basin, subgroups include the Samara and Seroglazovo cultures.

· Kurgan II–III, latter half of the 4^th millennium BC. Includes the Sredny Stog culture and the Maykop culture of the northern Caucasus. Stone circles, early two-wheeled chariots, anthropomorphic stone stelae of deities.

· Kurgan IV or Pit Grave culture, first half of the 3^rd millennium BC, encompassing the entire steppe region from the Ural to Romania.

o Wave 1, predating Kurgan I, expansion from the lower Volga to the Dnieper, leading to coexistence of Kurgan I and the Cucuteni culture. Repercussions of the migrations extend as far as the Balkans and along the Danube to the Vinča and Lengyel cultures in Hungary.

o Wave 2, mid 4^th millennium BC, originating in the Maykop culture and resulting in advances of “kurganized” hybrid cultures into northern Europe around 3000 BC – Globular Amphora culture, Baden culture, and ultimately Corded Ware culture.

o Wave 3, 3000-2800 BC, expansion of the Pit Grave culture beyond the steppes; appearance of characteristic pit graves as far as the areas of modern Romania, Bulgaria and eastern Hungary.

Hypothetical Homeland or Urheimat of the first PIE speakers, from 4500 BC onwards. The Yamna (Pit Grave) culture lasted from ca. 3600 till 2200 BC. In this time the first wagons appeared. People were buried with their legs flexed, a position which remained typical for the Indo-Europeans for a long time. The burials were covered with a mound, a kurgan. During this period, from 3600 till 3000 IE II split up into Pre-IE III and Pre-Proto-Anatolian. From ca.3000 B.C on, Late PIE dialects began to differentiate and spread by 2500 westward (Europe’s Indo-European), southward (Proto-Greek) and eastward (Proto-Aryan, Pre-Proto-Tocharian).

I. Archeogenetics and Indo-European Migrations

Cavalli-Sforza and Alberto Piazza argue that Renfrew (v.i.) and Gimbutas reinforce rather than contradict each other, stating that “genetically speaking, peoples of the Kurgan steppe descended at least in part from people of the Middle Eastern Neolithic who immigrated there from Turkey”.

NOTE. The genetic record cannot yield any direct information as to the language spoken by these groups. The current interpretation of genetic data suggests a strong genetic continuity in Europe; specifically, studies of mtDNA by Bryan Sykes show that about 80% of the genetic stock of Europeans originated in the Paleolithic.

Spencer Wells suggests that the origin, distribution and age of the R1a1 haplotype points to an ancient migration, possibly corresponding to the spread by the Kurgan people in their expansion across the Eurasian steppe around 3000 BC, stating that “there is nothing to contradict this model, although the genetic patterns do not provide clear support either”.

NOTE. R1a1 is most prevalent in Poland, Russia, and Ukraine, and is also observed in Pakistan, India and central Asia. R1a1 is largely confined east of the Vistula gene barrier and drops considerably to the west. The spread of Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup R1a1 has been associated with the spread of the Indo-European languages too. The mutations that characterize haplogroup R1a occurred ~10,000 years bp.

Haplogroup R1a1, whose lineage is thought to have originated in the Eurasian Steppes north of the Black and Caspian Seas, is therefore associated with the Kurgan culture, as well as with the postglacial Ahrensburg culture which has been suggested to have spread the gene originally.

The present-day population of R1b haplotype, with extremely high peaks in Western Europe and measured up to the eastern confines of Central Asia, are believed to be the descendants of a refugium in the Iberian peninsula (Portugal and Spain) at the Last Glacial Maximum, where the haplogroup may have achieved genetic homogeneity. As conditions eased with the Allerød Oscillation in about 12,000 BC, descendants of this group migrated and eventually recolonised all of Western Europe, leading to the dominant position of R1b in variant degrees from Iberia to Scandinavia, so evident in haplogroup maps.

NOTE 1. High concentrations of Mesolithic or late Paleolithic YDNA haplogroups of types R1b (typically well above 35%) and I (up to 25%), are thought to derive ultimately of the robust Eurasiatic Cro Magnoid homo sapiens of the Aurignacian culture, and the subsequent gracile leptodolichomorphous people of the Gravettian culture that entered Europe from the Middle East 20,000 to 25,000 years ago, respectively.

NOTE 2. The most common subclade is R1b1b2a, that has a maximum in Frisia. It may have originated towards the end of the last ice age, or perhaps more or less 7000 BC, possibly in the northern European mainland and a close match of the present–day distribution of S21 and the territorial pattern of the Eastern Corded Ware cultures and the Single Grave cultures has been observed. Dupuy and his colleagues proposed the ancestors of Scandinavian men from Haplogroup Hg P*(xR1a) or R1b (Y-DNA) to have brought Ahrensburg “culture” and stressed genetic similarity with Germany.

II. Kurgan Hypothesis & Proto-Indo-European languages

ARCHAEOLOGY (Kurgan Hypothesis)	LINGUISTICS (Three-Stage Theory)
ca. 4500-4000 BC. Sredny Stog, Dnieper-Donets and Sarama cultures, domestication of the horse.	Pre-PIE is spoken, probably somewhere in the Pontic-Caspian Steppe.
ca. 4000-3500 BC. The Yamna culture, the kurgan builders, emerges in the steppe, and the Maykop culture in northern Caucasus.	Early PIE or IE I, the earliest Proto-Indo-European attainable by using the internal reconstruction method of comparative grammar.
ca. 3500-3000 BC. The Yamna culture is at its peak, with stone idols, two-wheeled proto-chariots, animal husbandry, permanent settlements and hillforts, subsisting on agriculture and fishing, along rivers. Contact of the Yamna culture with late Neolithic Europe cultures results in kurganized Globular Amphora and Baden cultures. The Maykop culture shows the earliest evidence of the beginning Bronze Age, and bronze weapons and artifacts are introduced.	Middle PIE is spoken. Pre-IE III and Pre-Proto-Anatolian dialects evolve in different communities but presumably still in contact, until the later becomes isolated south of the Caucasus and has no more contacts with the linguistic innovations of common Late PIE.
ca. 3000-2500 BC. The Yamna culture extends over the entire Pontic steppe. The Corded Ware culture extends from the Rhine to the Volga, corresponding to the latest phase of Indo-European unity. Different cultures disintegrate, still in loose contact, enabling the spread of technology.	Late PIE is spoken in different dialects, at least a Southern and a Northern one. Dialectal communities remain still in contact, enabling the spread of phonetic and morphological innovations, as well as early loan words. Proto-Anatolian, spoken in Asia Minor.
ca. 2500-2000 BC. The Bronze Age reaches Central Europe with the Beaker culture of Northern Indo-Europeans. Indo-Iranians settle north of the Caspian in the Sintashta-Petrovka and later the Andronovo culture.	The breakup of the southern IE dialects is complete. Proto-Greek spoken in the Balkans; Proto-Indo-Iranian in Central Asia; Europe’s Indo-European in Northern Europe; Common Anatolian in Anatolia.
ca. 2000-1500 BC. The chariot is invented, leading to the split and rapid spread of Iranians and other peoples from the Andronovo culture and the Bactria-Margiana Complex over much of Central Asia, Northern India, Iran and Eastern Anatolia. Greek Darg Ages and flourishing of the Hittite Empire. Pre-Celtics Unetice culture has an active metal industry.	Indo-Iranian splits up in two main dialects, Indo-Aryan and Iranian. European proto-dialects like Germanic, Celtic, Italic, Baltic and Slavic differentiate from each other. A Proto-Greek dialect, Mycenaean, is already written in Linear B script. Anatolian languages like Hittite and Luwian are also written.
ca. 1500-1000 BC. The Nordic Bronze Age sees the rise of the Germanic Urnfield and the Celtic Hallstatt cultures in Central Europe, introducing the Iron Age. Italic peoples move to the Italian Peninsula. Rigveda is composed. The Hittite Kingdoms and the Mycenaean civilization decline.	Germanic, Celtic, Italic, Baltic and Slavic are already different proto-languages, developing in turn different dialects. Iranian and other related southern dialects expand through military conquest, and Indo-Aryan spreads in the form of its sacred language, Sanskrit.
ca. 1000-500 BC. Northern Europe enters the Pre-Roman Iron Age. Early Indo-European Kingdoms and Empires in Eurasia. In Europe, Classical Antiquity begins with the flourishing of the Greek peoples. Foundation of Rome.	Celtic dialects spread over Western Europe, German dialects to the south of Jutland. Italic languages attested in the Italian Peninsula. Greek and Old Italic alphabets appear. Late Anatolian dialects. Cimmerian, Scythian and Sarmatian in Asia, Paleo-Balkan languages in the Balkans.

1.5. Other Linguistic and Archaeological Theories

1.5.1. A common development of new hypotheses has been to revise the Three-Stage assumption. It is actually not something new, but the come back to more traditional views, reinterpreting the new findings of the Hittite scripts, trying to insert Anatolian into the old, static PIE concept.

1.5.2. The most known new alternative theory concerning PIE is the Glottalic theory. It assumes that Proto-Indo-European was pronounced more or less like Armenian, i.e. instead of PIE p, b, b^h, the pronunciation would have been *p’, *p, *b, and the same with the other two voiceless-voiced-voiced aspirated series of consonants. The IE Urheimat would have been then located in the surroundings of Anatolia, especially near Lake Urmia, in northern Iran, hence the archaism of Anatolian dialects and the glottalics still found in Armenian.

NOTE. Those linguistic findings are supported by Th. Gamkredlize-V. Ivanov (1990: “The early history of Indo-European languages”, Scientific American, where early Indo-European vocabulary deemed “of southern regions” is examined, and similarities with Semitic and Kartvelian languages are also brought to light.

Distribution of haplotypes R1b (light color) for Eurasiatic Paleolithic and R1a (dark color) for Yamna expansion; black represents other haplogroups.

1.5.3. Alternative theories include:

I. The European Homeland thesis maintains that the common origin of the IE languages lies in Europe. These theses are more or less driven by Archeological or Linguistic findings.

NOTE. It has been traditionally located in 1) Lithuania and the surrounding areas, by R.G. Latham (1851) and Th. Poesche (1878: Die Arier. Ein Beitrag zur historischen Anthropologie, Jena); 2) Scandinavia, by K.Penka (1883: Origines ariacae, Viena); 3) Central Europe, by G. Kossinna (1902: “Die Indogermanische Frage archäologisch beantwortet”, Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 34, pp. 161-222), P.Giles (1922: The Aryans, New York), and by linguist/archaeologist G. Childe (1926: The Aryans. A Study of Indo-European Origins, London).

a. The Old European or Alteuropäisch Theory compares some old European vocabulary (especially river names), which would be older than the spread of Late PIE dialects through Northern Europe. It points out the possibility of an older, pre-IE III spread of IE, either of IE II or I or maybe some other Pre-IE dialect. It is usually related to the PCT and Renfrew’s NDT.

b. The Paleolithic Continuity Theory posits that the advent of IE languages should be linked to the arrival of Homo sapiens in Europe and Asia from Africa in the Upper Paleolithic. The PCT proposes a continuated presence of Pre-IE and non-IE peoples and languages in Europe from Paleolithic times and allowing for minor invasions and infiltrations of local scope, mainly during the last three millennia.

NOTE. There are some research papers concerning the PCT available at <http://www.continuitas.com/>. Also, the PCT could in turn be connected with Frederik Kortlandt’s Indo-Uralic and Altaic studies <http://kortlandt.nl/publications/> – although they could also be inserted in Gimbutas’ early framework.

c. This is, in turn, related to the theories of a Neolithic revolution causing the peacefully spreading of an older pre-IE language into Europe from Asia Minor from around 7000 BC, with the advance of farming. It proposes that the dispersal (discontinuity) of Proto-Indo-Europeans originated in Neolithic Anatolia.

Homeland question (mixing Neolithic and Kurgan hypothesis), J.P.Mallory & D.Q. Adams

NOTE. Reacting to criticism, Renfrew by 1999 revised his proposal to the effect of taking a pronounced Indo-Hittite position. Renfrew’s revised views place only Pre-Proto-Indo-European in 7th millennium BC Anatolia, proposing as the homeland of Proto-Indo-European proper the Balkans around 5000 BC, explicitly identified as the “Old European culture” proposed by Gimbutas.

As of 2005, Colin Renfrew seems to support the PCT designs and the usefulness of the Paleolithic assumptions. He co-authored a paper concluding: Our finding lends weight to a proposed Paleolithic ancestry for modern Europeans The above quotation coming as results of archaeogenetic research on mtaDNA where 150 x greater N1a frequency was found. The first European farmers are descended from a European population who were present in Europe since the Paleolithic and not coming as a wave of Neolithic migration as proposed in Renfrew’S NDT.

II. Another hypothesis, contrary to the European ones, also mainly driven today by a nationalistic view, traces back the origin of PIE to Vedic Sanskrit, postulating that it is very pure, and that the origin can thus be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization of ca. 3000 BC.

NOTE. Such Pan-Sanskritism was common among early Indo-Europeanists, as Schlegel, Young, A. Pictet (1877: Les origines indoeuropéens, Paris) or Schmidt (who preferred Babylonia), but are now mainly supported by those who consider Sanskrit almost equal to Late Proto-Indo-European. For more on this, see S. Misra (1992: The Aryan Problem: A Linguistic Approach, Delhi), Elst’s Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate (1999), followed up by S.G. Talageri’s The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis (2000), both part of “Indigenous Indo-Aryan” viewpoint by N. Kazanas, the “Out of India” theory, with a framework dating back to the times of the Indus Valley Civilization.

III. The Black Sea deluge theory dates the origins of the IE dialects expansion in the genesis of the Sea of Azov, ca. 5600 BC, which in turn would be related to the Bible Noah’s flood, as it would have remained in oral tales until its writing down in the Hebrew Tanakh. This date is generally considered as rather early for the PIE spread.

NOTE. W.Ryan and W.Pitman published evidence that a massive flood through the Bosporus occurred about 5600 BC, when the rising Mediterranean spilled over a rocky sill at the Bosporus. The event flooded 155,000 km² of land and significantly expanded the Black Sea shoreline to the north and west. This has been connected with the fact that some Early Modern scholars based on Genesis 10:5 have assumed that the ‘Japhetite’ languages (instead of the ‘Semitic’ ones) are rather the direct descendants of the Adamic language, having separated before the confusion of tongues, by which also Hebrew was affected. That was claimed by Blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich (18^th c.), who stated in her private revelations that most direct descendants of the Adamic language were Bactrian, Zend and Indian languages, related to her Low German dialect. It is claimed that Emmerich identified this way Adamic language as Early PIE.

1.6. Relationship to Other Languages

1.6.1. Many higher-level relationships between PIE and other language families have been proposed. But these speculative connections are highly controversial. Perhaps the most widely accepted proposal is of an Indo-Uralic family, encompassing PIE and Proto-Uralic, a language from which Hunarian, Finnish, Estonian, Saami and a number of other languages belong. The evidence usually cited in favor of this is the proximity of the proposed Urheimaten of the two proto-languages, the typological similarity between the two languages, and a number of apparent shared morphemes.

NOTE. Other proposals, further back in time (and correspondingly less accepted), model PIE as a branch of Indo-Uralic with a Caucasian substratum; link PIE and Uralic with Altaic and certain other families in Asia, such as Korean, Japanese, Chukotko-Kamchatkan and Eskimo-Aleut (representative proposals are Nostratic and Joseph Greenberg’s Eurasiatic); etc.

1.6.2. Indo-Uralic or Uralo-Indo-European is a hypothetical language family consisting of Indo-European and Uralic (i.e. Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic). Most linguists still consider this theory speculative and its evidence insufficient to conclusively prove genetic affiliation.

NOTE. Dutch linguist Frederik Kortlandt supports a model of Indo-Uralic in which the original Indo-Uralic speakers lived north of the Caspian Sea, and Proto-Indo-Europeans began as a group that branched off westward from there to come into geographic proximity with the Northwest Caucasian languages, absorbing a Northwest Caucasian lexical blending before moving farther westward to a region north of the Black Sea where their language settled into canonical Proto-Indo-European.

1.6.3. The most common arguments in favour of a relationship between Early PIE and Uralic are based on seemingly common elements of morphology, such as the pronominal roots *m- for first person, *t- for second person, *i- for third person; case markings accusative *-m, ablative/partitive *-ta; interrogative/relative pronouns *k^w- “who?, which?”, *j- “who, which” to signal relative clauses; and a common SOV word order. Other, less obvious correspondences are suggested, such as the Indo-European plural marker -es (or -s in the accusative plural -m̥-s) and its Uralic counterpart *-t. This same word-final assibilation of *-t to *-s may also be present in PIE second-person singular -s in comparison with Uralic second-person singular *-t. Compare, within Indo-European itself, -s second-person singular injunctive, -si second-person singular present indicative, -tHa second-person singular perfect, -te second-person plural present indicative, tu “you” (singular) nominative, tei “to you” (singular) enclitic pronoun. These forms suggest that the underlying second-person marker in Indo-European may be *t and that the *u found in forms such as tu was originally an affixal particle.

NOTE. The problem with lexical evidence is to weed out words due to borrowing, because Uralic languages have been in contact with Indo-European languages for millenia, and consequently borrowed many words from them.

Meaning	Early PIE	Proto-Uralic
“I, me”	me, “me” (Acc.), mene, “my” (Gen.)	*mun, *mina, “I”
“you” (sg)	tu (Nom.), twe (Acc.), tewe “your” (Gen.)	*tun, *tina
First person singular	-m	*-m
First person plural	-me	*-me
Second person singular	-s (active), -tHa (perfect)	*-t
Second person plural	-te	*-te
Demonstrative	so, “this, he/she” (animate nom)	*ša (3^rd person singular)
Interrogative pronoun (An.)	k^wi-, “who?, what?”; k^wo-, “who?, what?”	*ken, “who?”, ku-, “who*?”
Relative pronoun	jo-	*-ja (nomen agentis)
Accusative	-m	*-m
Ablative/partitive	-od	*-ta
Nominative/Accusative pl.	-es (Nom. pl.), -m̥-s (Acc. pl.)	*-t
Oblique plural	-i (pronominal pl., cf. we-i- “we”, to-i- “those”)	*-i
Dual	-H₁	*-k
Stative	-s- (aorist); -es-, -t (stative substantive)	*-ta
Negative particle	nei, ne	ei- [negative verb] , ne
“to give”	deh₃-	*toHe-
“to moisten”, “water”	wed-, “to wet’”, wodr̥-, “water”	*weti, “water”
“water”	mesg-, “dip under water, dive”	muśke-, “wash*”
“to assign”, “name”	nem-, “to assign, to allot”, h₁nomn̥-, “name”	*nimi, “name”
“metal”	h₂weseh₂-, “gold”	*waśke, “some metal”
“trade”	mei-, “exchange”	*miHe-, “give, sell”
“fish”	(s)k^walo-, “large fish”	*kala, “fish”
“sister-in-law”	galou-, “husband's sister”	*kälɜ, “sister-in-law”
“much”	polu-, “much”	*paljɜ, “thick, much”

1.7. Indo-European Dialects of Europe

Languages of Europe. The black line divides the zones traditionally (or politically) considered inside the European subcontinent. Northern dialects are all but Greek and Kurdish (Iranian); Armenian is usually considered a Graeco-Aryan dialect, while Albanian is usually classified as a Northern one. Numbered inside the map, non-Indo-European languages: 1) Uralic languages; 2) Turkic languages; 3) Basque; 4) Maltese; 5) Caucasian languages.

Schleicher’s Fable: From Proto-Indo-European to Modern English

The so-called Schleicher's fable is a poem composed in PIE, published by August Schleicher in 1868, originally named “The Sheep and the Horses”. It is written here in the different reconstructible IE dialects for comparison.

More information and changes at <http://dnghu.org/en/indoeuropean-schleicher-fable/>

The immediate parent dialect of each proto-language is enclosed in parentheses.

Indo-Hittite (IE I), 3500 BC	Common Anatolian (PAn), 2500 BC	Europe’s IE (IE IIIb), 2500 BC
H₃owis h₁ekwōs-k^we.	Howis ekwōs-k^we.	Owis ekwōs-k^we.
H₃owis, k^wesjo wl̥h₁neh₂ ne h₁est,	Howis, k^wesjo wl̥neh ne est,	Owis, k^wesjo wl̥̄nā ne est,
h₁ekwoms spekét,	ekwoms spekét,	ekwoms spekét,
h₁oinom cr̥h₃úm wog^hom wég^hontm̥,	oikom gr̥rúm wogom wégontm̥,	oinom g^wr̥úm wog^hom wég^hontm̥,
h₁oinom-k^we megeh₂m b^horom,	oikom-k^we megehm borom,	oinom-k^we megām b^horom,
h₁oinom-k^we d^hh₁g^hmonm̥ h₁oh₁ku b^hérontm̥.	oikom-k^we dgmonm̥ oku bérontm̥.	oinom-k^we d^hg^hmonm̥ ōkú b^hérontm̥.
H₃owis nu h₁ékwob^hjos weuk^wét:	Howis nu ékwobos wūk^wét:	Owis nu ékwob^hos weuk^wét:
“Kr̥d h₂ég^hnutoi h₁moí,	“Kr̥d xégnutor moí,	“Kr̥d ág^hnutoi moí,
h₁ekwoms h₂égontm̥ wih₁rom wídn̥tei”.	ekwoms xégontm̥ wirom wídn̥tę”.	ekwoms ágontm̥ wīrom wídn̥tei”.
H₁ekwōs tu weuk^wónt: “Klud^hí, h₃owi!	Ekwōs tu weuk^wónt: “Kludí, howi!	Ekwōs tu weuk^wónt: “Klud^hí, owi!
kr̥d h₂ég^hnutoi n̥sméi wídn̥tb^hjos:	kr̥d hegnutor n̥smę wídn̥tbos:	kr̥d ág^hnutoi n̥sméi wídn̥tb^hjos:
h₂ner, potis, h₃owjom-r̥ wl̥h₁neh₂m̥	hner, potis, howjom-r̥ wl̥nehm	ner, potis, owjom-r̥ wl̥̄nām
sweb^hi g^whermóm westrom k^wr̥neuti”.	swebi cermóm wéstrom k^wr̥nūdi”.	seb^hi g^whermóm westrom k^wr̥neuti”.
H₃owjom-k^we wl̥hneh₂ ne h₁esti.	Howjom-k^we wl̥neh ne esti.	Owjom-k^we wl̥̄nā ne esti.
Tod kékluwos h₃owis h₂egrom b^hugét.	Tod kékluwos howis hegrom bugét.	Tod kékluwos owis agrom b^hugét.

Proto-Indo-Iranian (IE IIIa), 2500 BC	Proto-Greek (IE IIIa), 2500 BC	Proto-Celtic (EIE), 1000 BC
Awis aķwās-ka.	Owis ekwoi-k^we.	Owis ek^woi-k^we.
Awis, kasja wr̥̄nā na āst,	Ówis, k^weho wl̥̄nā ne ēst,	Owis, k^wesjo wlānā ne est,
akwams spaķát,	ekwos spekét,	ek^wos spekét,
aikam gr̥úm wag^ham wág^hantm̥,	oiwom k^whr̥um wok^hom wek^hontm̥,	oinom barúm woxom wéxontam,
aikam-ka mag^ham b^haram,	oiwom-k^we megām p^horom,	oinom-k^we megam borom,
aikam-ka g^hámanam āķu b^harantm̥.	oiwom-k^we k^ht^hómonm̥ ōku p^hérontm̥.	oinom-k^we dxoniom āku berontam.
Awis nu áķwab^hjas áwaukat:	Ówis nu ékwop^hos éweuk^wet:	Owis nu ék^wobos weuk^wét:
“Ķr̥d ág^hnutai mai,	“Kr̥d ák^hnutoi moi,	“Krid áxnutor mai,
aķwams aģantam wīram wídn̥tai”.	ekwoms ágontm̥ wīrom wídn̥tei”.	ek^wos ágontom wīrom wídanti”.
Áķwās tu áwawkant: “Ķrud^hí avi!	Ékwoi tu éwewek^wont: “Klut^hí, owi!	Ek^woi tu wewk^wónt: “Kludí, owi!
ķr̥d ág^hnutai n̥smái wídn̥tb^hjas:	kr̥d ágnutoi n̥sméi wídn̥tp^hos:	krid áxnutor ansméi wídantbjos:
nar, patis, awjam-r̥ wr̥̄nām	anér, potis, owjom-r̥ wl̥̄nām	ner, φotis, owjom-ar wlānām
swab^hi g^harmám wastram kr̥nauti”.	sep^hi k^whermóm westrom k^wr̥neuti”.	sebi g^wermóm westrom k^warneuti”.
Awjam-ka wr̥̄nā na asti.	Owjom-k^we wl̥̄nā ne esti.	Owjom-k^we wlānā ne esti.
Tat ķáķruwas awis aģram áb^hugat.	Tot kékluwos owis agrom ép^huget.	Tod kéklowos owis agrom bugét.

Proto-Italic (EIE), 1000 BC	Pre-Proto-Germanic (EIE), 1000 BC	Common Tocharian (PToch), 1000 BC
Owis ekwoi-k^we.	Awiz exwaz-x^we.	Owi jukweñ-ke.
Owis, k^wesjo wlānā ne est,	Awiz, h^wes wulnō ne est,	Owi, kuse wlānā ne es,
ekwos spekét,	ehwanz spexét,	jukwes späkät,
oinom grāwúm woxom wéxontem,	ainan karún wagan wéganðun,	enem karäm wakm̥ wäkantäm,
oinom-k^we megam φorom,	ainan-x^we mekon baran,	enem-ke mäkām parm,
oinom-k^we xomonem ōku φerontem.	ainan-x^we gúmanan āxu béranðun.	enem-ke tkamnam ākä pärantäm.
Owis nu ékwoφos weuk^wét:	Awiz nu éxwamaz weux^wéð:	Owi nä júkwebos wukät:
“Kord axnutor mei,	“Hurt ágnuðai mei,	“Kärt ágnätai me,
ekwos ágontom wīrom wídentei”.	exwanz ákanðun weran wítanðī”.	jukwes ākantän wirem witsante”.
Ekwoi tu wewk^wónt: “Kluþí, owi!	Exwaz wewx^want: “Hludí, awi!	Jukweñ tä wukant: “Klutí, ow!
kord axnutor ensméi wídentφos:	hurt áknuðai unsmí wítunðmaz:	kärt āknete ansme wítäntbe:
ner, potis, owjom-or wlānām	ner, faþiz, awjan-aur wulnōn	när, pats, owjāp-är wlānām
seφi g^hermóm westrom k^worneuti”.	sibi warmán westhran h^wurneuþi”.	säpi särmam wästram kärnuti”.
Owjom-k^we wlānā ne esti.	Awjan-x^we wulnō ne isti.	Owjāp-ke wlānā nä esti.
Tud kékluwos owis agrom φugít.	Þat héxluwaz awiz akran bukéþ.	Tä käklewe owi ākre bekät.

Proto-Armenian (?), 1 AD	Proto-Slavic (EIE), 500 AD	Proto-Baltic (EIE), 500 AD
Hovih ēšwuh-k^he.	Ovĭs esvŭ-če.	Avis avai-ke.
Hovih, k^hehjo gálana ne ēs(t^h),	Ovĭs, česo vlĭna ne jazĭt,	Avis, kaso vìlno ne at,
ēšwoh sp^hek^he(t^h),	esva speset,	avus spekít,
enam erkúm woĵã wéĵonã,	inŭ žarŭõ vozŭ vézõtẽ,	ainam ģarũ važam véžantim,
enam-k^he mekã borã,	inŭ-če meža borŭ,	ainam-ke meģam baram,
enam-k^he zmonã ušu béronã.	inŭ-če žmonŭ asŭ bérõtẽ.	ainam-ke zmonam uoku bérantim.
Hovih nu ēšwoboh égojk^he(t^h):	Ovĭs nŭ ésvomŭ vjučét:	Avis nu ávamas vjaukít:
“Sart égnut^he me,	“Srĭd áznutĕ mĕ,	“ird ágnutai mai,
ēšwuh ákont^hã garã gítant^hi”.	esvŭ ágõtŭ virŭ vídẽti”.	avai ágantim viram vídintei”.
Ēšwoh t^hu égojk^hõ: “Ludí, hovi!	Esva tu vjučõt: “Sludĭ, ove!	Avus tu vjaukant: “ludí, avi!
Sart égnut^hoi asmí gítan(t^h)bos:	srĭd áznutĕ ẽsmí vídẽtmŭ:	šird ágnutai insméi vídintmas:
a(n)ír, p^hot^his, owjã-ar gálanam	ner, podĭs, óvjemĭ-rĭ vlĭnõ	ner, pats, avjam-ir vìlnom
(k)ibi ĵermã gesthrã k^harnojt^hi”.	sĕbi germŭ vestrŭ črĭnjutĭ”.	sebi garmám vestram kirnjauti”.
Hovjã-k^he gálana ne est^hi.	Óvjemĭ-če vlĭna ne jázĭtĭ.	Avjam-ke vìlno ne ati.
Da k^hék^hlugah hovih akrã ébuke(t^h).	To sésluvŭ ovĭs agrŭ bugĭt.	Ta éluvas avis agram bugít.

Translation: « The Sheep and the Horses. • A sheep that had no wool • saw horses, • one pulling a heavy wagon, • one carrying a big load, • and one carrying a man quickly. • The sheep said to the horses: • “My heart pains me, • seeing a man driving horses”. • The horses said: “Listen, sheep, • our hearts pain us when we see this: • a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep • into a warm garment for himself. • And the sheep has no wool”. • Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain. »

1.7.1. Northern Indo-European dialects

I. Europe’s Indo-European

The Northwestern Proto-Indo-European dialect, or Europe’s Indo-European, was spoken in the European Subcontinent between ca. 2500-2000 BC, until it evolved into Proto-Celtic, Proto-Italic, Proto-Germanic, and Proto-Balto-Slavic. Its original common location is usually traced back to some place to the East of the Rhine, to the North of the Alps and the Carpathian Mountains, to the South of Scandinavia and to the East of the Eastern European Lowlands or Russian Plain, not beyond Moscow.

Europe 2500-2000 BC. The Proto-Germanic homeland is traced back to Jutland and southern Scandinavia; present-day West Germany was the homeland for Proto-Celtic and Proto-Italic speakers; the Eastern zone corresponds to Balto-Slavic speakers.

The Corded Ware complex of cultures traditionally represents for many scholars the arrival of the first speakers of Northern Dialects in central Europe, coming from the Yamna culture. The archaeological complex dates from about 3.000-2.000 BC. The Globular Amphorae culture may be slightly earlier, but the relation between these two cultures remains unclear.

Evolution of PIH laryngeals in EIE include vowel colourization and compensatory lengthening, many of them common to Late PIE:

· PIH H₁, the neutral laryngeal: h₁a→a, h₁e→e, h₁o→o; ah₁→ā, eh₁→ē, oh₁→ō.

· PIH H₂, the a-colouring laryngeal: h₂a→a, h₂e→a, h₂o→a; ah₂→ā, eh₂→ā.

· PIH H₃, the o-colouring laryngeal: h₃e→o, h₃o→o; eh₃→ō, oh₃→ō.

· PIE ə (PIH interconsonantal -H-) → a, as in PIH ph₂tḗr → EIE patḗr (cf. PII pitr)

· PIH r̥H→r̥̄, l̥H→l̥̄, n̥H→n̥̄, m̥H→m̥̄; also, iH→ī, uH→ū.

· PIH H before consonants → Ø : cf. PIH h₁dōnts, EIE dōnts (cf. PGk odōnts), “tooth”; PIH h₂stḗr, EIE stḗr (cf. PGk astḗr), etc.

NOTE. There are many variations in the laryngeal theories proposed by scholars, who reconstruct from just one (Szemerényi) to eight (Puhvel) or nine (Adrados); a general reconstruction of three laryngeals is commonly accepted for its simplicity and wide acceptance today. For more on this see Appendix II.3, The Laryngeal Theory.

A. Germanic

Spread of Germanic languages today.

The Germanic languages form one of the branches of the Indo-European language family. The largest Germanic languages are English and German, with ca. 340 and some 120 million native speakers, respectively. Other significant languages include a number Low Germanic dialects (like Dutch) and the Scandinavian languages.

Their common ancestor is Proto-Germanic, probably still spoken in the mid-1^st millennium B.C. in Iron Age Northern Europe, since its separation from an earlier Pre-Proto-Germanic, a dialect of Europe’s Indo-European branch dated ca. 1000 BC. The succession of archaeological horizons suggests that before their language differentiated into the individual Germanic branches the Proto-Germanic speakers lived in southern Scandinavia and along the coast from the Netherlands in the west to the Vistula in the east around 750 BC. Early Germanic dialects enter history with the Germanic peoples who settled in northern Europe along the borders of the Roman Empire from the 2^nd century.

NOTE. A few surviving inscriptions in a runic script from Scandinavia dated to ca. 200 are thought to represent a later stage of Proto-Norse; according to Bernard Comrie, it represents a Late Common Germanic which followed the “Proto-Germanic” stage.

Expansion of Germanic tribes 1200 BC - 1 AD.

The earliest evidence of the Germanic branch is recorded from names in the 1^st century by Tacitus, and in a single instance in the 2^nd century BC, on the Negau helmet. From roughly the 2^nd century AD, some speakers of early Germanic dialects developed the Elder Futhark. Early runic inscriptions are also largely limited to personal names, and difficult to interpret. The Gothic language was written in the Gothic alphabet developed by Bishop Ulfilas for his translation of the Bible in the 4^th century. Later, Christian priests and monks who spoke and read Latin in addition to their native Germanic tongue began writing the Germanic languages with slightly modified Latin letters, but in Scandinavia, runic alphabets remained in common use throughout the Viking Age.

NOTE. W. P. Lehmann (1961) considered that Jacob Grimm’s “First Germanic Sound Shift”, or Grimm’s Law and Verner's Law, which pertained mainly to consonants and were considered for a good many decades to have generated Proto-Germanic, were Pre-Proto-Germanic, and that the “upper boundary” was the fixing of the accent, or stress, on the root syllable of a word, typically the first. Proto-Indo-European had featured a moveable pitch accent comprising “an alternation of high and low tones” as well as stress of position determined by a set of rules based on the lengths of the word's syllables.

The fixation of the stress led to sound changes in unstressed syllables. For Lehmann, the “lower boundary” was the dropping of final -a or -e in unstressed syllables; for example, PIE woid-á >, Goth. wait, “knows” (the > and < signs in linguistics indicate a genetic descent). Antonsen (1965) agreed with Lehmann about the upper boundary but later found runic evidence that the -a was not dropped: Gmc. ékwakraz ... wraita, “I wakraz ... wrote (this)”. He says: “We must therefore search for a new lower boundary for Proto-Germanic”.

The so-called Grimm’s law is a set of statements describing the inherited Europe’s Indo-European stops as they developed in Pre-Proto-Germanic. As it is presently formulated, Grimm’s Law consists of three parts, which must be thought of as three consecutive phases in the sense of a chain shift:

· PIE voiceless stops change into PGmc. voiceless fricatives: p→f, t→θ, k→x, k^w→x^w.

· PIE voiced stops become PGmc. voiceless stops: b→p, d→t, g→k, g^w→k^w.

· PIE voiced aspirated stops lose their aspiration and change into plain voiced stops: b^h→b, d^h→d, g^h→g, g^wh→g^w,g,w.

Germanic dialects in Europe. The line dividesWestern from Northern dialects.

Verner’s Law addresses a category of exceptions, stating that unvoiced fricatives are voiced when preceded by an unaccented syllable: PGmc. s→z, f→v, θ→ð; as, PIE b^hratēr → PGmc. brōþēr, “brother”, but PIE mātḗr → PGmc. mōðēr “mother”.

NOTE. Sometimes the shift produced allophones (consonants that were pronounced differently) depending on the context of the original. With regard to original PIE k and k^w, Trask (2000) says that the resulting PGmc. x and x^w were reduced to h and h^w in word-initial position. Consonants were lengthened or prolonged under some circumstances, appearing in some daughter languages as geminated graphemes. Kraehenmann (2003) states that Proto-Germanic already had long consonants, but they contrasted with short ones only word-medially. Moreover, they were not very frequent and occurred only intervocally almost exclusively after short vowels. The phonemes b, d, g and g^w, says Ringe (2006) were stops in some environments and fricatives in others.

Effects of the aforementioned sound laws include the following examples:

· p→f: PIE pōds, “foot”, PGmc. fōts; cf. Goth. fōtus, O.N. fōtr, O.E. fōt, O.H.G. fuoz.

· t→þ,ð: PIE tritjós, “third”, PGmc. þriðjaz; cf. Goth. þridja, O.N. þriðe, OE. þridda, O.H.G. dritto.

· k→x,h: PIE kuntós, “dog”, PGmc. xunðaz; cf. Goth. hunds, O.N. hundr, O.E. hund, O.H.G. hunt.

· k^w→x^w,h^w: PIE k^wos, “what, who”, Gmc. h^woz; cf. Goth. hwas, O.N. hverr, O.S. hwe, O.E. hwā, O.Fris. hwa, O.H.G. hwër.

· b→p: PIE werbō, “throw”, Gmc. werpō; cf. Goth. wairpan, O.S. werpan, O.N. verpa, O.E. weorpan, M.L.G., Du. werpen, Ger. werfen.

· d→t: PIE dekm̥, “ten”, Gmc. tehun; cf. Goth. taihun, O.S. tehan, O.N. tiu, O.Fris. tian, O.Du. ten, O.H.G. zehan.

· g→k: PIE goldós, “cold”, Gmc. kaldaz; cf. Goth. kalds, O.N. kaldr, O.E. cald, O.H.G. kalt.

· g^w→kw: PIE g^wwós, “alive”, Gmc. k^wi(k)waz; cf. Goth. k^wius, O.N. kvikr, O.E. cwic, O.H.G. quec.

· b^h→b: PIE b^hrātēr, Gmc. brōþēr; cf. Goth. bróþar, O.N. brōþir, O.E. brōþor, O.H.G. bruoder.

· d^h→d: PIE d^hworis, “door”, Gmc. duriz; cf. Goth. daúr, O.N. dyrr, O.E duru, O.H.G. turi.

· g^h→g: PIE g^hansis, “goose”, Gmc. gansiz; cf. Goth gansus, O.N. gās, O.E. gōs, O.H.G. gans.

· g^wh→gw/g/w: PIE g^whormós, “warm”, Gmc. warmaz; cf. O.N. varmr, O.E. wearm, O.H.G. warm. PIE g^whondos, “fight”, Gmc. gandaz; cf. Goth. gunþs, O.N. gandr, O.E. gūþ, O.H.G. gund.

Known exception is that the voiceless stops did not become fricatives if they were preceded by PIE s., i.e. sp, st, sk, sk^w. Similarly, PIE t did not become a fricative if it was preceded by p, k, or k^w.This is sometimes treated separately under the Germanic spirant law.

About the PIE vowels: a,o→a; PIE ā,ō→ō. PGmc. had then short i, u, e, a, and long ī, ū, ē, ō, ǣ?

NOTE 1. A similar mergers happened in the Slavic languages, but in the opposite direction. At the time of the merge, the vowels probably were [ɒ] and [ɒ:] before their timbres differentiated into maybe [ɑ] and [ɔ:].

NOTE 2. PGmc. ǣ and ē are also transcribed as ē¹ and ē²; ē² is uncertain as a phoneme, and only reconstructed from a small number of words; it is posited by the comparative method because whereas all probable instances of inherited PIE ē (PGmc. *ē¹) are distributed in Gothic as ē and the other Germanic languages as ā, all the Germanic languages agree on some occasions of ē (e.g. PGmc. hē²r → Goth.,O.E.,O.N. hēr, “here”). Krahe treats ē² (secondary ē) as identical with ī. It probably continues PIE ei or ēi, and it may have been in the process of transition from a diphthong to a long simple vowel in the Proto-Germanic period. Gothic makes no orthographic and therefore presumably no phonetic distinction between ē¹ and ē². The existence of two Proto-Germanic [e:]-like phonemes is supported by the existence of two e-like Elder Futhark runes, Ehwaz and Eihwaz.

B. Latin

Regions where Romance languages are spoken, either as mother tongue or as second language.

The Romance languages, a major branch of the Indo-European language family, comprise all languages that descended from Latin, the language of the Roman Empire. Romance languages have some 800 million native speakers worldwide, mainly in the Americas, Europe, and Africa, as well as in many smaller regions scattered through the world. The largest languages are Spanish and Portuguese, with about 400 and 200 million mother tongue speakers respectively, most of them outside Europe. Within Europe, French (with 80 million) and Italian (70 million) are the largest ones. All Romance languages descend from Vulgar Latin, the language of soldiers, settlers, and slaves of the Roman Empire, which was substantially different from the Classical Latin of the Roman literati. Between 200 BC and 100 AD, the expansion of the Empire, coupled with administrative and educational policies of Rome, made Vulgar Latin the dominant native language over a wide area spanning from the Iberian Peninsula to the Western coast of the Black Sea. During the Empire’s decadence and after its collapse and fragmentation in the 5^th century, Vulgar Latin evolved independently within each local area, and eventually diverged into dozens of distinct languages. The oversea empires established by Spain, Portugal and France after the 15^th century then spread Romance to the other continents — to such an extent that about two thirds of all Romance speakers are now outside Europe.

The Duenos (O.Lat. duenus, Lat. buenus) Inscription in Old Latin, ca. 6^th century BC.

Latin is usually classified, along with Faliscan, as an Italic dialect. The Italic speakers were not native to Italy, but migrated into the Italian Peninsula in the course of the 2^nd millennium BC, and were apparently related to the Celtic tribes that roamed over a large part of Western Europe at the time. Archaeologically, the Apennine culture of inhumations enters the Italian Peninsula from ca. 1350 BC, east to west; the Iron Age reaches Italy from ca. 1100 BC, with the Villanovan culture (cremating), intruding north to south. Before the Italic arrival, Italy was populated primarily by non-Indo-European groups (perhaps including the Etruscans). The first settlement on the Palatine hill dates to ca. 750 BC, settlements on the Quirinal to 720 BC, both related to the Founding of Rome. As Rome extended its political dominion over Italy, Latin became dominant over the other Italic languages, which ceased to be spoken perhaps sometime in the 1^st century AD.

The ancient Venetic language, as revealed by its inscriptions (including complete sentences), was also closely related to the Italic languages and is sometimes even classified as Italic. However, since it also shares similarities with other Western Indo-European branches (particularly Germanic), some linguists prefer to consider it an independent Indo-European language.

Italic is usually divided into:

· Sabellic, including:

o Oscan, spoken in south-central Italy.

o Umbrian group:

§ Umbrian.

§ Volscian.

§ Aequian.

§ Marsian.

§ South Picene.

· Latino-Faliscan, including:

o Faliscan, spoken in the area around Falerii Veteres, north of the city of Rome.

o

Iron Age Italy, ca 800 BC. In central Italy, Italic languages. In southern and north-western Italy, other Indo-European languages. Venetic, Sicanian and Sicel were possibly also languages of the IE family.

Latin, which was spoken in west-central Italy. The Roman conquests eventually spread it throughout the Roman Empire and beyond.

The Masiliana tablet abecedarium, ca. 700 BC, read right to left: ABGDEVZHΘIKLMN[Ξ]OPŚQRSTUXΦΨ.

NOTE. A specimen of Faliscan appears written round the edge of a picture on a patera: “foied vino pipafo, cra carefo”, which in Old Latin would have been “hodie vinom bibabo, cras carebo”, translated as “today I will drink wine; tomorrow I won't have any” (R. S. Conway, Italic Dialects). Among other distinctive features, it shows the retention of medial f which in Latin became b, and evolution of PIE g^h→f (fo-, contrast Lat. ho-).

Phonetic changes from PIE to Latin include: b^h→f/b, d^h→f/b, g^h→h/f, g^w→w/g, k^w→kw/k, p→p/kw.

The Italic languages are first attested in writing from Umbrian and Faliscan inscriptions dating to the 7^th century BC. The alphabets used are based on the Old Italic alphabet, which is itself based on the Greek alphabet. The Italic languages themselves show minor influence from the Etruscan and somewhat more from the Ancient Greek languages.

Oscan had much in common with Latin, though there are also some differences, and many common word-groups in Latin were represented by different forms; as, Lat. uolo, uelle, uolui, and other such forms from PIE wel-, will, were represented by words derived from g^her-, desire, cf. Osc. herest, “he wants, desires” as opposed to Lat. uult (id.). Lat. locus, “place” was absent and represented by Osc. slaagid.

In phonology, Oscan also shows a different evolution, as PIE k^w→ Osc. p instead of Lat. kw (cf. Osc. pis, Lat. quis); PIE g^w → Osc. b instead of Latin w; PIE medial b^h, d^h → Osc. f, in contrast to Lat. b or d (cf. Osc. mefiai, Lat. mediae), but v.s. Faliscan; etc.

Forum inscription in Latin, written boustrophedon.

Hence the reconstructed changes of PIE into Proto-Italic:

· Voiced labiovelars unround or lenite: g^w→g/w, g^wh→g^h.

· Voiced aspirates become first unvoiced, then fricativize: b^h→p^h→ɸ→f; d^h→t^h→θ; g^h→k^h→x.

NOTE. About PIE intervocalic g^h → Ita. x, linguists (see Joseph y Wallace 1991) generally propose that it evolves as Faliscan g or k, while in Latin it becomes glottal h, without a change of manner of articulation. Picard (1993) rejects that proposal citing abstract phonetic principles, which Chela-Flores (1999) discusses.

· PIE s → Ita. θ before r (cf. Ita. kereθrom, Lat. cerebrum); unchanged elsewhere.

Up to 8 cases are found; apart from the 6 cases of Classic Latin (i.e. N-V-A-G-D-Ab), there was a Locative (cf. Lat. proxumae viciniae, domī, carthagini; Osc. aasai, Lat. “in ārā” etc.) and an Instrumental (cf. Columna Rostrata Lat. pugnandod, marid, naualid, etc; Osc. cadeis amnud, Lat. “inimicitiae causae”; Osc. preiuatud, Lat. “prīuātō”, etc.).

About forms different from original Genitives and Datives, compare Genitive (Lapis Satricanus:) popliosio valesiosio (the type in -ī is also very old, Segomaros -i), and Dative (Praeneste Fibula:) numasioi, (Lucius Cornelius Scipio Epitaph:) quoiei.

C. Celtic

The Celtic languages are the languages descended from Proto-Celtic, or “Common Celtic”, a dialect of Proto-Indo-European.

Diachronic distribution of Celtic peoples: maximal expansion (ca. 200 BC) and modern “Celtic nations” and Celtic-speaking territories.

During the 1^st millennium BC, especially between the 5^th and 2^nd centuries BC they were spoken across Europe, from the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula and the North Sea, up the Rhine and down the Danube to the Black Sea and the Upper Balkan Peninsula, and into Asia Minor (Galatia). Today, Celtic languages are now limited to a few enclaves in the British Isles and on the peninsula of Brittany in France.

The distinction of Celtic into different sub-families probably occurred about 1000 BC. The early Celts are commonly associated with the archaeological Urnfield culture, the La Tène culture, and the Hallstatt culture.

Scholarly handling of the Celtic languages has been rather argumentative owing to lack of primary source data. Some scholars distinguish Continental and Insular Celtic, arguing that the differences between the Goidelic and Brythonic languages arose after these split off from the Continental Celtic languages. Other scholars distinguish P-Celtic from Q-Celtic, putting most of the Continental Celtic languages in the former group – except for Celtiberian, which is Q-Celtic.

NOTE. There are two competing schemata of categorization. One scheme, argued for by Schmidt (1988) among others, links Gaulish with Brythonic in a P-Celtic node, leaving Goidelic as Q-Celtic. The difference between P and Q languages is the treatment of PIE k^w, which became *p in the P-Celtic languages but *k in Goidelic. An example is the Proto-Celtic verbal root k^wrin- “to buy”, which became pryn- in Welsh but cren- in Old Irish.

The other scheme links Goidelic and Brythonic together as an Insular Celtic branch, while Gaulish and Celtiberian are referred to as Continental Celtic. According to this theory, the ‘P-Celtic’ sound change of [k^w] to [p] occurred independently or regionally. The proponents of the Insular Celtic hypothesis point to other shared innovations among Insular Celtic languages, including inflected prepositions, VSO word order, and the lenition of intervocalic [m] to [β̃], a nasalized voiced bilabial fricative (an extremely rare sound), etc. There is, however, no assumption that the Continental Celtic languages descend from a common “Proto-Continental Celtic” ancestor. Rather, the Insular/Continental schemata usually consider Celtiberian the first branch to split from Proto-Celtic, and the remaining group would later have split into Gaulish and Insular Celtic.

Known PIE evolutions into Proto-Celtic include:

· Consonants: p →ɸ→h→Ø in initial and intervocalic positions. Cel. ɸs→xs, ɸt→xt

Hallstatt core territory (ca. 800 BC) and influence (ca. 500 BC) and La Tène culture (ca. 450) and influence (ca. 50 BC), with some major Celtic tribes labeled.

NOTE. PIE p was lost in Proto-Celtic, apparently going through the stages ɸ (perhaps in Lus. porcos, v.i.) and h (perhaps attested by the toponym Hercynia if this is of Celtic origin) before being lost completely word-initially and between vowels. PIE sp- became Old Irish s and Brythonic f; while Schrijver (1995) argues there was an intermediate stage sɸ- (in which ɸ remained an independent phoneme until after Proto-Insular Celtic had diverged into Goidelic and Brythonic), McCone (1996) finds it more economical to believe that sp- remained unchanged in PC, that is, the change p to ɸ did not happen when s preceded.

· Aspirated: d^h→d, b^h→b, g^h→x, g^wh→g^w; but g^w→b.

· Vowels: ō → ā, ū (in final syllable); ē→ī; PIE u-w → Cel. o-w.

· Diphthongs: āi→ai, ēi→ei, ōi→oi; āu→au, ēu,ōu→ou;

· Sonorants: l̥→la, li (before stops); r̥ → ar, ri (before stops); m̥ → Cel. am; n̥ → Cel. an.

Italo-Celtic refers to the hypothesis that Italic and Celtic dialects are descended from a common ancestor, Proto-Italo-Celtic, at a stage post-dating Proto-Indo-European. Since both Proto-Celtic and Proto-Italic date to the early Iron Age (say, the centuries on either side of 1000 BC), a probable time frame for the assumed period of language contact would be the late Bronze Age, the early to mid 2^nd millennium BC. Such grouping is supported among others by Meillet (1890), and Kortlandt (2007).

NOTE. One argument for Italo-Celtic was the thematic Genitive in i (dominus, domini). Both in Italic (Popliosio Valesiosio, Lapis Satricanus) and in Celtic (Lepontic, Celtiberian -o), however, traces of PIE gentivie -osjo have been discovered, so that the spread of the i-Genitive could have occurred in the two groups independently, or by areal diffusion. The community of -ī in Italic and Celtic may be then attributable to early contact, rather than to an original unity. The i-Genitive has been compared to the so-called Cvi formation in Sanskrit, but that too is probably a comparatively late development.

Other arguments include that both Celtic and Italic have collapsed the PIE Aorist and Perfect into a single past tense, and the ā-subjunctive, because both Italic and Celtic have a subjunctive descended from an earlier optative in -ā-. Such an optative is not known from other languages, but the suffix occurs in Balto-Slavic and Tocharian past tense formations, and possibly in Hittite -ahh-.

D. Slavic

The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages), a group of closely related languages of the Slavic peoples and a subgroup of the Indo-European language family, have speakers in most of Eastern Europe, in much of the Balkans, in parts of Central Europe, and in the northern part of Asia. The largest languages are Russian and Polish, with 165 and some 47 million speakers, respectively. The oldest Slavic literary language was Old Church Slavonic, which later evolved into Church Slavonic.

Distribution of Slavic languages in Europe now and in the past (in stripes).

There is much debate whether Pre-Proto-Slavic branched off directly from Europe’s Indo-European in 2000 BC, or whether it passed through a common Proto-Balto-Slavic stage which had necessarily split apart before 1000 BC in its two main sub-branches.

The original homeland of the speakers of Proto-Slavic remains controversial too. The most ancient recognizably Slavic hydronyms (river names) are to be found in northern and western Ukraine and southern Belarus. It has also been noted that Proto-Slavic seemingly lacked a maritime vocabulary.

Historical distribution of the Slavic languages. The larger shaded area is the Prague-Penkov-Kolochin complex of cultures of the 6th to 7th centuries, likely corresponding to the spread of Slavic-speaking tribes of the time. The smaller shaded area indicates the core area of Slavic river names, dated ca. 500 AD.

The Proto-Slavic language seccesion from common Proto-Balto-Slavic is estimated on archaeological and glottochronological critera to have occurred between 1500-1000 BC. Common Slavic is usually reconstructible to around 600 AD.

By the 7^th century, Common Slavic had broken apart into large dialectal zones. Linguistic differentiation received impetus from the dispersion of the Slavic peoples over a large territory – which in Central Europe exceeded the current extent of Slavic-speaking territories. Written documents of the 9^th, 10^th & 11^th centuries already show some local linguistic features.

NOTE. For example the Freising monuments show a language which contains some phonetic and lexical elements peculiar to Slovenian dialects (e.g. rhotacism, the word krilatec).

In the second half of the ninth century, the dialect spoken north of Thessaloniki became the basis for the first written Slavic language, created by the brothers Cyril and Methodius who translated portions of the Bible and other church books. The language they recorded is known as Old Church Slavonic. Old Church Slavonic is not identical to Proto-Slavic, having been recorded at least two centuries after the breakup of Proto-Slavic, and it shows features that clearly distinguish it from Proto-Slavic. However, it is still reasonably close, and the mutual intelligibility between Old Church Slavonic and other Slavic dialects of those days was proved by Cyril’s and Methodius’ mission to Great Moravia and Pannonia. There, their early South Slavic dialect used for the translations was clearly understandable to the local population which spoke an early West Slavic dialect.

As part of the preparation for the mission, the Glagolitic alphabet was created in 862 and the most important prayers and liturgical books, including the Aprakos Evangeliar – a Gospel Book lectionary containing only feast-day and Sunday readings – , the Psalter, and Acts of the Apostles, were translated. The language and the alphabet were taught at the Great Moravian Academy (O.C.S. Veľkomoravské učilište) and were used for government and religious documents and books. In 885, the use of the Old Church Slavonic in Great Moravia was prohibited by the Pope in favour of Latin. Students of the two apostles, who were expelled from Great Moravia in 886, brought the Glagolitic alphabet and the Old Church Slavonic language to the Bulgarian Empire, where it was taught and Cyrillic alphabet developed in the Preslav Literary School.

Vowel changes from PIE to Proto-Slavic:

Ø PIE ī, ei → Sla. i₁.

Ø PIE ai, oi → reduced *ai (*ăi/*ui) → Sla. i₂.

Ø PIE i →*i → Sla. ь.

Ø PIE e → Sla. e.

Ø PIE en, em → Sla. ę.

Ø PIE ē → Sla. ě₁.

Ø PIE ai, oi → *ai → Sla. ě₂.

Ø PIE ā, ō → *ā → Sla. a.

Ø PIE a, o, intervocalic ə → *a → Sla. o.

Ø PIE an, on, am, om →*an, *am → Sla. ǫ.

Ø PIE u → *u → Sla. ъ.

Ø PIE ū → Sla. y.

Ø PIE au, ou → *au → Sla. u.

A page from the 10^th-11^th century Codex Zographensis found in the Zograf Monastery in 1843. It is written in Old Church Slavonic, in the Glagolitic alphabet designed by brothers St Cyril and St Methodius.

NOTE 1. Apart from this simplified equivalences, other evolutions appear:

o The vowels i₂, ě₂ developed later than i₁, ě₁. In Late Proto-Slavic there were no differences in pronunciation between i₁ and i₂ as well as between ě₁ and ě₂. They had caused, however, different changes of preceding velars, see below.

o Late Proto-Slavic yers ь, ъ < earlier i, u developed also from reduced PIE e, o respectively. The reduction was probably a morphologic process rather than phonetic.

o We can observe similar reduction of ā into *ū (and finally y) in some endings, especially in closed syllables.

o The development of the Sla. i₂ was also a morphologic phenomenon, originating only in some endings.

o Another source of the Proto-Slavic y is *ō in Germanic loanwords – the borrowings took place when Proto-Slavic no longer had ō in native words, as PIE ō had already changed into *ā.

o PIE ə disappeared without traces when in a non-initial syllable.

o PIE eu probably developed into *jau in Early Proto-Slavic (or: during the Balto-Slavic epoch), and eventually into Proto-Slavic ju.

o According to some authors, PIE long diphthongs ēi, āi, ōi, ēu, āu, ōu had twofold development in Early Proto-Slavic, namely they shortened in endings into simple *ei, *ai, *oi, *eu, *au, *ou but they lost their second element elsewhere and changed into *ē, *ā, *ō with further development like above.

NOTE 2. Other vocalic changes from Proto-Slavic include *jo, *jъ, *jy changed into *je, *jь, *ji; *o, *ъ, *y also changed into *e, *ь, *i after *c, *ʒ, *s’ which developed as the result of the 3^rd palatalization; *e, *ě changed into *o, *a after *č, *ǯ, *š, *ž in some contexts or words; a similar change of *ě into *a after *j seems to have occurred in Proto-Slavic but next it can have been modified by analogy.

On the origin of Proto-Slavic consonants, the following relationships are regularly found:

· PIE p → Sla. p.

· PIE b, b^h → Sla. b.

· PIE t → Sla. t.

· PIE d, d^h → Sla. d.

· PIE k, k^w → Sla. k;

o palatalized *k^j → Sla. s.

· PIE g, g^h, g^w, g^w^h → Sla. g;

o palatalized *g^j, *g^j^h→ Sla. z.

· PIE s → Sla. s;

o before a voiced consonant PIE [z] → Sla. z;

o PIE s before a vowel when after r, u, k, i, probably also after l → Sla. x.

· PIE word-final m → Sla. n (<BSl. *n).

· PIE m̥ → Sla. im, um.

· PIE n̥ → Sla. in, un.

·

Page from the Spiridon Psalter in Church Slavic, a language derived from Old Church Slavonic by adapting pronunciation and orthography, and replacing some old and obscure words and expressions by their vernacular counterparts.

PIE l̥ → Sla. il, ul.

· PIE r̥ → Sla. ir, ur.

· PIE w → Sla. v (<BSl. *w).

· PIE j → Sla. j.

In some words the Proto-Slavic x developed from other PIE phonemes, like kH, ks, sk.

NOTE. For a detailed study of phonetic changes you can read Frederik Kortlandt’s online article From Proto-Indo-European to Slavic (1983) at <http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art066e.pdf>.

E. Baltic

The Baltic languages are a group of related languages belonging to the Indo-European language family and spoken mainly in areas extending east and southeast of the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe.

The language group is often divided into two sub-groups: Western Baltic, containing only extinct languages as Prussian or Galindan, and Eastern Baltic, containing both extinct and the two living languages in the group, Lithuanian and Latvian. While related, Lithuanian, Latvian, and particularly Old Prussian differ substantially from each other and are not mutually intelligible.

Baltic and Slavic share so many similarities that many linguists, following the lead of such notable Indo-Europeanists as August Schleicher and Oswald Szemerényi, take these to indicate that the two groups separated from a common ancestor, the Proto-Balto-Slavic language, dated ca. 2000-1400 BC.

NOTE 1. Until Meillet’s Dialectes indo-européens of 1908, Balto-Slavic unity was undisputed among linguists – as he notes himself at the beginning of the Le Balto-Slave chapter, “L’unité linguistique balto-slave est l’une de celles que personne ne conteste”. Meillet’s critique of Balto-Slavic confined itself to the seven characteristics listed by Karl Brugmann in 1903, attempting to show that no single one of these is sufficient to prove genetic unity. Szemerényi in his 1957 re-examination of Meillet’s results concludes that the Balts and Slavs did, in fact, share a “period of common language and life”, and were probably separated due to the incursion of Germanic tribes along the Vistula and the Dnepr roughly at the beginning of the Common Era.

NOTE 2. Another theory was proposed in the 1960s by V. Ivanov and V. Toporov: that the Balto-Slavic proto-language split from the start into West Baltic, East Baltic and Proto-Slavic. In their framework, Proto-Slavic is a peripheral and innovative Balto-Slavic dialect which suddenly expanded, due to a conjunction of historical circumstances. Onomastic evidence shows that Baltic languages were once spoken in much wider territory than the one they cover today, and were later replaced by Slavic.

The most important of these common Balto-Slavic isoglosses are:

· Winter's law: lengthening of a short vowel before a voiced plosive, usually in a closed syllable.

· Identical reflexes of PIE syllabic sonorants, usually developing i and u before them.

NOTE. Kuryłowicz thought that *uR reflexes arose after PIE velars, and also notable is also older opinion of J.Endzelīns and R. Trautmann according to whom *uR reflexes are the result of zero-grade of morphemes that had PIE o → PBSl. *a in normal-grade. Matasović (2008) proposes following internal rules after PIE syllabic R → BSl. *əR: 1) *ə→*i in a final syllable; 2) *ə→*u after velars and before nasals; 3) *ə→*i otherwise.

· Hirt's law: retraction of PIE accent to the preceding syllable closed by a laryngeal.

· Rise of the Balto-Slavic acute before PIE laryngeals in a closed syllable.

· Replacement of PIE genitive singular of thematic nouns with ablative.

· Formation of past tense in *-ē (cf. Lith. preterite dãvė, “he gave”, O.C.S. imperfect bě, “he was”)

· Generalization of the PIE neuter *to- stem to the nominative singular of masculine and feminine demonstratives instead of PIE so- pronoun, so, sā, tod → BSl. tos, tā, tod.

· Formation of so-called definite adjectives with a construction of adjective and relative pronoun; cf. Lith. geràsis, “the good”, vs. gẽras, “good”; O.C.S dobrъjь, “the good”, vs. dobrъ, “good”.

NOTE. ‘Ruki’ is the term for a sound law which is followed especially in Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian dialects. The name of the term comes from the sounds which cause the phonetic change, i.e. PIE s → š / r, u, K, i (it associates with a Slavic word which means ‘hands’ or ‘arms’). A sibilant [s] is retracted to [ʃ] after i,u,r, and after velars (i.e. k which may have developed from earlier k, g, g^h). Due to the character of the retraction, it was probably an apical sibilant (as in Spanish), rather than the dorsal of English. The first phase (s → š) seems to be universal, the later retroflexion (in Sanskrit and probably in Proto-Slavic as well) is due to levelling of the sibilant system, and so is the third phase - the retraction to velar [x] in Slavic and also in some Middle Indian languages, with parallels in e.g. Spanish. This rule was first formulated for the Indo-European by Holger Pedersen.

Common Balto-Slavic innovations include several other prominent, but non-exclusive isoglosses, such as the satemization, Ruki, change of PIE o → BSl. *a (shared with Germanic, Indo-Iranian and Anatolian) and the loss of labialization in PIE labiovelars (shared with Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Tocharian). Among Balto-Slavic archaisms notable is the retention of traces of an older PIE accent.

Baltic and Slavic languages also show a remarkable amount of correspondence in vocabulary; there are at least 100 words exclusive to Balto-Slavic, either being a common innovation (i.e. not of PIE origin) or sharing the same semantic development from PIE root. For example:

· BSl. *lēipā, “tilia” → Lith. líepa, O.Prus. līpa, Ltv. liẽpa; Sla. *lipa.

· BSl. *rankā, “hand” → Lith. rankà, O.Prus. rānkan, Ltv. rùoka; Sla. *rǭkà (cf. O.C.S. rǫka).

· BSl. *galwā́, “head” → Lith. galvà, O.Prus. galwo, Ltv. galva; Sla. *golvà (cf. O.C.S. glava).

F. Fragmentary Dialects

Messapian

Messapian (also known as Messapic) is an extinct Indo-European language of south-eastern Italy, once spoken in the regions of Apulia and Calabria. It was spoken by the three Iapygian tribes of the region: the Messapians, the Daunii and the Peucetii. The language, a centum dialect, has been preserved in about 260 inscriptions dating from the 6^th to the 1^st century BC.

There is a hypothesis that Messapian was an Illyrian language. The Illyrian languages were spoken mainly on the other side of the Adriatic Sea. The link between Messapian and Illyrian is based mostly on personal names found on tomb inscriptions and on classical references, since hardly any traces of the Illyrian language are left.

The Messapian language became extinct after the Roman Empire conquered the region and assimilated the inhabitants.

Some phonetic characteristics of the language may be regarded as quite certain:

· PIE short o→a, as in the last syllable of the genitive kalatoras.

· PIE final m→n, as in aran.

· PIE nj→nn, as in the Messapian praenomen Dazohonnes vs. the Illyrian praenomen Dazonius; the Messapian genitive Dazohonnihi vs. Illyrian genitive Dasonii, etc.

· PIE tj→tth, as in the Messapian praenomen Dazetthes vs. Illyrian Dazetius; the Messapian genitive Dazetthihi vs. the Illyrian genitive Dazetii; from a Dazet- stem common in Illyrian and Messapian.

· PIE si→ss, as in Messapian Vallasso for Vallasio, a derivative from the shorter name Valla.

· The loss of final -d, as in tepise, and probably of final -t, as in -des, perhaps meaning “set”, from PIE d^he-, “set, put”.

· The change of voiced aspirates in Proto-Indo-European to plain voiced consonants: PIE d^h→d, as in Messapian anda (< PIE en-d^ha- < PIE en-, “in”, compare Gk. entha); and PIE b^h→b, as in Messapian beran (< PIE b^her-, “to bear”).

· PIE au→ā before (at least some) consonants: Bāsta, from Bausta.

· The form penkaheh – which Torp very probably identifies with the Oscan stem pompaio – a derivative of the Proto-Indo-European numeral penk^we, “five”.

If this last identification be correct it would show, that in Messapian (just as in Venetic and Ligurian) the original labiovelars (k^w, g^w, g^wh) were retained as gutturals and not converted into labials. The change of o to a is exceedingly interesting, being associated with the northern branches of Indo-European such as Gothic, Albanian and Lithuanian, and not appearing in any other southern dialect hitherto known. The Greek Aphrodite appears in the form Aprodita (Dat. Sg., fem.).

The use of double consonants which has been already pointed out in the Messapian inscriptions has been very acutely connected by Deecke with the tradition that the same practice was introduced at Rome by the poet Ennius who came from the Messapian town Rudiae (Festus, p. 293 M).

Venetic

Venetic is an Indo-European language that was spoken in ancient times in the Veneto region of Italy, between the Po River delta and the southern fringe of the Alps.

The language is attested by over 300 short inscriptions dating between the 6^th century BC and 1^st century. Its speakers are identified with the ancient people called Veneti by the Romans and Enetoi by the Greek. It became extinct around the 1^st century when the local inhabitants were assimilated into the Roman sphere.

Venetic was a centum dialect. The inscriptions use a variety of the Northern Italic alphabet, similar to the Old Italic alphabet.

The exact relationship of Venetic to other Indo-European languages is still being investigated, but the majority of scholars agree that Venetic, aside from Liburnian, was closest to the Italic languages. Venetic may also have been related to the Illyrian languages, though the theory that Illyrian and Venetic were closely related is debated by current scholarship.

Interesting parallels with Germanic have also been noted, especially in pronominal forms:

· Ven. ego, “I”, acc. mego, “me”; Goth. ik, acc. mik; but cf. Lat. ego, acc. me.

· Ven. sselboisselboi, “to oneself”; O.H.G. selb selbo; but cf. Lat. sibi ipsi.

Venetic had about six or even seven noun cases and four conjugations (similar to Latin). About 60 words are known, but some were borrowed from Latin (liber.tos. < libertus) or Etruscan. Many of them show a clear Indo-European origin, such as Ven. vhraterei (< PIE b^hraterei), “to the brother”.

In Venetic, PIE stops b^h→f, d^h→f, g^h→h, in word-initial position (as in Latin and Osco-Umbrian), but to b^h→b, d^h→d, g^h→g, in word-internal intervocalic position, as in Latin. For Venetic, at least the developments of b^h and d^h are clearly attested. Faliscan and Osco-Umbrian preserve internal b^h→f, d^h→f, g^h→h.

There are also indications of the developments of PIE initial g^w→w-, PIE k^w→kv and PIE initial g^wh→f in Venetic, all of which are parallel to Latin, as well as the regressive assimilation of PIE sequence p...k^w... → k^w...k^w... (e.g. penk^we → *k^wenk^we, “five”, perk^wu→ *k^werk^wu, “oak”), a feature also found in Italic and Celtic (Lejeune 1974).

Ligurian

The Ligurian language was spoken in pre-Roman times and into the Roman era by an ancient people of north-western Italy and south-eastern France known as the Ligures. Very little is known about this language (mainly place names and personal names remain) which is generally believed to have been Indo-European; it appears to have adopted significantly from other Indo-European languages, primarily Celtic (Gaulish) and Italic (Latin).

Strabo states “As for the Alps... Many tribes (éthnê) occupy these mountains, all Celtic (Keltikà) except the Ligurians; but while these Ligurians belong to a different people (hetero-ethneis), still they are similar to the Celts in their modes of life (bíois).”

Liburnian

The Liburnian language is an extinct language which was spoken by the ancient Liburnians, who occupied Liburnia in classical times. The Liburnian language is reckoned as an Indo-European language, usually classified as a Centum language. It appears to have been on the same Indo-European branch as the Venetic language; indeed, the Liburnian tongue may well have been a Venetic dialect.

No writings in Liburnian are known, though. The grouping of Liburnian with Venetic is based on the Liburnian onomastics. In particular, Liburnian anthroponyms show strong Venetic affinities, with many common or similar names and a number of common roots, such as Vols-, Volt-, and Host- (<PIE g^hos-ti-, “stranger, guest, host”). Liburnian and Venetic names also share suffixes in common, such as -icus and -ocus.

NOTE. These features set Liburnian and Venetic apart from the Illyrian onomastic province, though this does not preclude the possibility that Venetic-Liburnian and Illyrian may have been closely related, belonging to the same Indo-European branch. In fact, a number of linguists argue that this is the case, based on similar phonetic features and names in common between Venetic-Liburnian on the one hand and Illyrian on the other.

The Liburnians were conquered by the Romans in 35 BC, and its language was eventually replaced by Latin, undergoing language death probably very early in the Common era.

Lusitanian

Lusitanian (so named after the Lusitani or Lusitanians) was a Paleohispanic Indo-European language known by only five inscriptions and numerous toponyms and theonyms. The language was spoken before the Roman conquest of Lusitania, in the territory inhabited by Lusitanian tribes, from Douro to the Tagus rivers in the wetern area of the Iberian Peninsula, where they were established already before the 6^th century BC.

Their language is usually considered a Pre-Celtic (possibly Italo-Celtic) IE dialect, and it is sometimes associated with the language of the Vettones and with the linguistic substratum of the Gallaeci and Astures, based on archaeological findings and descriptions of ancient historians.

Classification of ethnic groups in Hispania ca. 200 BC.

NOTE. The affiliation of the Lusitanian language within the Italo-Celtic group is still debated. There are those who endorse that it is a Celtic language, a theory largely based upon the historical fact that the only Indo-European tribes that are known to have existed in Portugal at that time were Celtic tribes. The apparent Celtic character of most of the lexicon —anthroponyms and toponyms — may also support a Celtic affiliation. There is a substantial problem in the Celtic theory however: the preservation of PIE initial p-, as in Lusitanian pater or porcom, meaning “father” and “pig”, respectively. The Celtic languages had lost that initial p- in their evolution; compare Lat. pater, Gaul. ater, and Lat. porcum, O.Ir. orc. However, it does not necessarily preclude the possibility of Lusitanian being Celtic, because of the supposed evolution of PIE initial p → *ɸ → *h → Cel. Ø, so it might have been an early Proto-Celtic (or Italo-Celtic) dialect that split off before the loss of p-, or when p- had become *ɸ - (before shifting to h- and then being lost); the letter p of the Latin alphabet could have been used to represent either sound.

F. Villar and R. Pedrero relate Lusitanian with the Italic languages. The theory is based on parallels in the names of deities, as Lat. Consus, Lus. Cossue, Lat. Seia, Lus. Segia, or Marrucinian Iovia, Lus. Iovea(i), etc. and other lexical items, as Umb. gomia, Lus. comaiam, with some other grammatical elements.

Arroyo de la Luz (Cáceres) Inscription: ISACCID·RVETI//PVPPID·CARLAE·EN//ETOM·INDI·NA. //....CE·IOM·//M·

II. Northern Indo-European in Asia: Tocharian

Wooden plate with inscriptions in Tocharian. Kucha, China, 5^th-8^th century.

Tocharian or Tokharian is one of the most obscure branches of the group of Indo-European languages. The name of the language is taken from people known to the Greek historians (Ptolemy VI, 11, 6) as the Tocharians (Greek Τόχαροι, “Tokharoi”). These are sometimes identified with the Yuezhi and the Kushans, while the term Tokharistan usually refers to 1^st millennium Bactria. A Turkic text refers to the Turfanian language (Tocharian A) as twqry. Interpretation is difficult, but F. W. K. Müller has associated this with the name of the Bactrian Tokharoi. In Tocharian, the language is referred to as arish-käna and the Tocharians as arya.

Tocharian consisted of two languages; Tocharian A (Turfanian, Arsi, or East Tocharian) and Tocharian B (Kuchean or West Tocharian). These languages were spoken roughly from the 6^th to 9^th century centuries; before they became extinct, their speakers were absorbed into the expanding Uyghur tribes. Both languages were once spoken in the Tarim Basin in Central Asia, now the Xinjiang Autonomous Region of China.

Tocharian is documented in manuscript fragments, mostly from the 8^th century (with a few earlier ones) that were written on palm leaves, wooden tablets and Chinese paper, preserved by the extremely dry climate of the Tarim Basin. Samples of the language have been discovered at sites in Kucha and Karasahr, including many mural inscriptions.

Tocharian A and B are not intercomprehensible. Properly speaking, based on the tentative interpretation of twqry as related to Tokharoi, only Tocharian A may be referred to as Tocharian, while Tocharian B could be called Kuchean (its native name may have been kuśiññe), but since their grammars are usually treated together in scholarly works, the terms A and B have proven useful. The common Proto-Tocharian language must precede the attested languages by several centuries, probably dating to the 1^st millennium BC.

1.7.2. Southern Indo-European Dialects

I. Greek

Greek (Gk. Ἑλληνική, “Hellenic”) is an Indo-European branch with a documented history of 3,500 years. Today, Modern Greek is spoken by 15 million people in Greece, Cyprus, the former Yugoslavia, particularly the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania and Turkey.

Ancient Greek dialects by 400 BC after R.D. Woodard (2008).

The major dialect groups of the Ancient Greek period can be assumed to have developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions, and their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The ancient Greeks themselves considered there to be three major divisions of the Greek people, into Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cyprian, far from the center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological and linguistic investigation.

Greek has been spoken in the Balkan Peninsula since the 2^nd millennium BC. The earliest evidence of this is found in the Linear B tablets dating from 1500 BC. The later Greek alphabet is unrelated to Linear B, and was derived from the Phoenician alphabet; with minor modifications, it is still used today.

Mycenaean is the most ancient attested form of the Greek branch, spoken on mainland Greece and on Crete in the 16^th to 11^th centuries BC, before the Dorian invasion. It is preserved in inscriptions in Linear B, a script invented on Crete before the 14^th century BC. Most instances of these inscriptions are on clay tablets found in Knossos and in Pylos. The language is named after Mycenae, the first of the palaces to be excavated.

The tablets remained long undeciphered, and every conceivable language was suggested for them, until Michael Ventris deciphered the script in 1952 and proved the language to be an early form of Greek. The texts on the tablets are mostly lists and inventories. No prose narrative survives, much less myth or poetry. Still, much may be glimpsed from these records about the people who produced them, and about the Mycenaean period at the eve of the so-called Greek Dark Ages.

Linear B has roughly 200 signs, divided into syllabic signs with phonetic values and logograms with semantic values.

Unlike later varieties of Greek, Mycenaean Greek probably had seven grammatical cases, the nominative, the genitive, the accusative, the dative, the instrumental, the locative, and the vocative. The instrumental and the locative however gradually fell out of use.

NOTE. For the Locative in -ei, compare di-da-ka-re, ‘didaskalei’, e-pi-ko-e, ‘Epikóhei’, etc (in Greek there are syntactic compounds like puloi-genēs, ‘born in Pylos’); also, for remains of an Ablative case in -ōd, compare (months’ names) ka-ra-e-ri-jo-me-no, wo-de-wi-jo-me-no, etc.

Proto-Greek, a southern PIE dialect, was spoken in the late 3^rd millennium BC, roughly at the same time as Europe’s Indo-European, most probably in the Balkans. The unity of Proto-Greek probably ended as Hellenic migrants, speaking the predecessor of the Mycenaean language, entered the Greek peninsula around the 21st century BC. They were then separated from the Dorian Greeks, who entered the peninsula roughly one millennium later, speaking a dialect that in some respects had remained more archaic.

Proto-Greek was affected by a late satemization, evidenced by the (post-Mycenaean) change of labiovelars into dentals before e (e.g. k^we → te “and”).

The primary sound changes from PIE (and PIH laryngeals) to Proto-Greek include:

· Aspiration of PIE intervocalic s → PGk h.

NOTE. The loss of PIE prevocalic s- was not completed entirely, famously evidenced by sus “sow”, dasus “dense”; sun “with”, sometimes considered contaminated with PIE kom (cf. Latin cum) to Homeric / Old Attic ksun, is possibly a consequence of Gk. psi-substrate (See Villar).

· De-voicing of voiced aspirates: b^h→p^h, d^h→t^h, g^h→k^h, g^wh→k^wh.

· Dissimilation of aspirates (Grassmann’s law), possibly post-Mycenaean.

· PIE word-initial j- (not Hj-) is strengthened to PGk dj- (later Gk. ζ-).

· Vocalization of laryngeals between vowels and initially before consonants, i.e. h₁→e, h₂→a, h₃→o.

NOTE. The evolution of Proto-Greek should be considered with the background of an early Palaeo-Balkan sprachbund that makes it difficult to delineate exact boundaries between individual languages. The characteristically Greek representation of word-initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels is shared by the Armenian language, which also shares other phonological and morphological peculiarities of Greek, vide infra.

· The sequence CRHC (where C = consonant, R = resonant, H = laryngeal) becomes PIH CRh₁C → PGk CRēC; PIH CRh₂C → PGk CRāC; PIH CRh₃C → PGk CRōC.

· The sequence PIH CRHV (where V = vowel) becomes PGk CaRV.

NOTE. It has also been proposed that Vk^w→uk^w; cf. PIE nok^wts, “night” → PGk nuk^wts → Gk. nuks/nuxt-.

Later sound changes between the earliest Proto-Greek and the attested Mycenaean include:

o Loss of final stop consonants; final m→n.

o Syllabic ṃ→am, and ṇ→an, before resonants; otherwise both were nasalized ṃ/ṇ→ã→a.

o loss of s in consonant clusters, with supplementary lengthening, e.g. esmi→ēmi.

o creation of secondary s from clusters, ntia→nsa. Assibilation ti→si only in southern dialects.

Other attested changes between PIE and the earliest Greek dialects include:

· The PIE dative, instrumental and locative cases are syncretized into a single dative case. Some innovative desinences appear, as e.g. dative plural -si from locative plural -su.

· Dialectal nominative plural in -oi, -ai fully replaces Late PIE common -ōs, -ās.

· The superlative on -tatos (<PIE -tṃ-to-s) becomes productive.

· The peculiar oblique stem gunaik- “women”, attested from the Thebes tablets is probably Proto-Greek; it appears, at least as gunai- also in Armenian.

· The pronouns houtos, ekeinos and autos are created. Use of ho, hā, ton as articles is post-Mycenaean.

· An isogloss between Greek and the closely related Phrygian is the absence of r-endings in the Middle in Greek, apparently already lost in Proto-Greek.

· Proto-Greek inherited the augment, an IE prefix é- to verbal forms expressing past tense. This feature it shares only with Indo-Iranian and Phrygian (and to some extent, Armenian), lending support to a Southern or Graeco-Aryan Dialect.

· The first person middle verbal desinences -mai, -mān replace -ai, -a. The third singular pherei is an analogical innovation, replacing the expected PIE b^héreti, i.e. Dor. *phereti, Ion. *pheresi.

· The future tense is created, including a future passive, as well as an aorist passive.

· The suffix -ka- is attached to some perfects and aorists.

· Infinitives in -ehen, -enai and -men are created.

II. Armenian

Armenian is an Indo-European language spoken in the Armenian Republic and also used by Armenians in the Diaspora. It constitutes an independent branch of the Indo-European language family.

Distribution of Armenian speakers in the 20^th Century.

Armenian was traditionally regarded as a close relative of Phrygian, apparently closely related to Greek, sharing major isoglosses with it. The Graeco-Armenian hypothesis proposed a close relationship to the Greek language, putting both in the larger context of Paleo-Balkans languages – notably including Phrygian, which is widely accepted as an Indo-European language particularly close to Greek, and sometimes Ancient Macedonian –, consistent with Herodotus’ recording of the Armenians as descending from colonists of the Phrygians.

NOTE. That traditional linguistic theory, proposed by Pedersen (1924), establishes a close relationship between both original communities, Greek and Armenian, departing from a common subdialect of IE IIIa (Southern Dialect of Late PIE). That vision, accepted for a long time, was rejected by Clackson (1994) in The linguistic relationship between Armenian and Greek, which, supporting the Graeco-Aryan linguistic hypothesis, dismisses that the coincidences between Armenian and Greek represent more than those found in the comparison between any other IE language pair. Those findings are supported by Kortlandt in Armeniaca (2003), in which he proposes a continuum Daco-Albanian / Graeco-Phrygian / Thraco-Armenian.

The earliest testimony of the Armenian language dates to the 5^th century AD, the Bible translation of Mesrob Mashtots. The earlier history of the language is unclear and the subject of much speculation. It is clear that Armenian is an Indo-European language, but its development is opaque.

NOTE. Proto-Armenian sound-laws are varied and eccentric, such as PIE dw- yielding Arm. k-, and in many cases still uncertain. In fact, that phonetic development is usually seen as dw- to erk-, based on PIE numeral dwo-, “two”, a reconstruction Kortlandt (ibidem) dismisses, exposing alternative etymologies for the usual examples.

PIE voiceless stops are aspirated in Proto-Armenian, a circumstance that gave rise to the Glottalic theory, which postulates that this aspiration may have been sub-phonematic already in PIE. In certain contexts, these aspirated stops are further reduced to w, h or zero in Armenian – so e.g. PIE *p’ots, into Arm. otn, Gk. pous, “foot”; PIE *t’reis, Arm. erek’, Gk. treis, “three”.

The reconstruction of Proto-Armenian being very uncertain, there is no general consensus on the date range when it might have been alive. If Herodotus is correct in deriving Armenians from Phrygian stock, the Armenian-Phrygian split would probably date to between roughly the 12^th and 7^th centuries BC, but the individual sound-laws leading to Proto-Armenian may have occurred at any time preceding the 5^th century AD. The various layers of Persian and Greek loanwords were likely acquired over the course of centuries, during Urartian (pre-6^th century BC) Achaemenid (6^th to 4^th c. BC; Old Persian), Hellenistic (4^th to 2^nd c. BC Koine Greek) and Parthian (2^nd c. BC to 3^rd c. AD; Middle Persian) times.

Armenian manuscript, ca. 5^th-6^th AD.

Grammatically, early forms of Armenian had much in common with classical Greek and Latin, but the modern language (like Modern Greek) has undergone many transformations. Interestingly enough, it shares with Italic dialects the secondary IE suffix -tiō(n), extended from -ti, cf. Arm թյուն (t’youn).

III. Indo-Iranian

The Indo-Iranian language group constitutes the easternmost extant branch of the Indo-European family of languages. It consists of four language groups: the Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Nuristani, and possibly Dardic, usually classified within the Indic subgroup. The term Aryan languages is also traditionally used to refer to the Indo-Iranian languages.

The contemporary Indo-Iranian languages form the largest sub-branch of Indo-European, with more than one billion speakers in total, stretching from Europe (Romani) and the Caucasus (Ossetian) to East India (Bengali and Assamese). A 2005 estimate counts a total of 308 varieties, the largest in terms of native speakers being Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu, ca. 540 million), Bengali (ca. 200 million), Punjabi (ca. 100 million), Marathi and Persian (ca. 70 million each), Gujarati (ca. 45 million), Pashto (40 million), Oriya (ca. 30 million), Kurdish and Sindhi (ca. 20 million each).

Proto-Indo-Iranians are commonly identified with the bearers of the Andronovo culture and their homeland with an area of the Eurasian steppe that borders the Ural River on the west, the Tian Shan on the east – where the Indo-Iranians took over the area occupied by the earlier Afanasevo culture –, and Transoxiana and the Hindu Kush on the south. Historical linguists broadly estimate that a continuum of Indo-Iranian languages probably began to diverge by 2000 BC, preceding both the Vedic and Iranian cultures. A Two-wave model of Indo-Iranian expansion have been proposed (see Burrow 1973 and Parpola 1999), strongly associated with the chariot.

Map of the Sintashta-Petrovka culture (red), its expansion into the Andronovo culture during the 2^nd millennium BC, showing the overlap with the BMAC in the south. The location of the earliest chariots is shown in purple.

Aryans spread into the Caucasus, the Iranian plateau, and South Asia, as well as into Mesopotamia and Syria, introducing the horse and chariot culture to this part of the world. Sumerian texts from EDIIIb Ngirsu (2500-2350 BC) already mention the ‘chariot' (gigir) and Ur III texts (2150-2000 BC) mention the horse (anshe-zi-zi). They left linguistic remains in a Hittite horse-training manual written by one “Kikkuli the Mitannian”. Other evidence is found in references to the names of Mitanni rulers and the gods they swore by in treaties; these remains are found in the archives of the Mitanni's neighbors, and the time period for this is about 1500 BC.

The standard model for the entry of the Indo-European languages into South Asia is that the First Wave went over the Hindu Kush, either into the headwaters of the Indus and later the Ganges. The earliest stratum of Vedic Sanskrit, preserved only in the Rigveda, is assigned to roughly 1500 BC. From the Indus, the Indo-Aryan languages spread from ca. 1500 BC to ca. 500 BC, over the northern and central parts of the subcontinent, sparing the extreme south. The Indo-Aryans in these areas established several powerful kingdoms and principalities in the region, from eastern Afghanistan to the doorstep of Bengal.

The Second Wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave. The Iranians would take over all of Central Asia, Iran, and for a considerable period, dominate the European steppe (the modern Ukraine) and intrude north into Russia and west into central and eastern Europe well into historic times and as late as the Common Era. The first Iranians to reach the Black Sea may have been the Cimmerians in the 8th century BC, although their linguistic affiliation is uncertain. They were followed by the Scythians, who are considered a western branch of the Central Asian Sakas, and the Sarmatian tribes.

The Medes, Parthians and Persians begin to appear on the Persian plateau from ca. 800 BC, and the Achaemenids replaced Elamite rule from 559 BC. Around the first millennium of the Common Era, the Iranian Pashtuns and Baloch began to settle on the eastern edge of the Iranian plateau, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern Pakistan in what is now the North-West Frontier Province and Balochistan, displacing the earlier Indo-Aryans from the area.

The main changes separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Late PIE include:

· Early “satemization” trend:

o Loss of PIE labio-velars into PII plain velars: k^w→k , g^w→g, g^wh→g^h .

o Palatalization of PII velars in certain phonetic environments: k→ķ, g→ģ, g^h→ģ^h.

· Collapse of PIE ablauting vowels into a single PII vowel: e,o→a; ē,ō→ā.

o A common exception is the Brugmann’s law.

· Grassmann’s law, Bartholomae’s law, and the Ruki sound law were also complete in PII.

NOTE. For a detailed description of those Indo-Iranian sound laws and the “satemization” process, see Appendix II. For Ruki sound law, v.s. Baltic in §1.7.1.

· Sonorants are generally stable in PII, but for PIE l̥ → PII r̥, just like l→r.

Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilant *z; among those to Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates.

A. Iranian

The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-Iranian subfamily, with an estimated 150-200 million native speakers today, the largest being Persian (ca. 60 million), Kurdish (ca. 25 million), Pashto (ca. 25 million) and Balochi (ca. 7 million).

Current distribution of Iranian dialects.

Proto-Iranian dates to some time after Proto-Indo-Iranian breakup, or the early second millennium BC, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of southeastern Europe, the Iranian plateau, and Central Asia. The oldest Iranian language known, Avestan, is mainly attested through the Avesta, a collection of sacred texts connected to the Zoroastrian religion.

Linguistically, the Old Iranian languages are divided into two major families, the Eastern and Western group, and several subclasses. The so-called Eastern group includes Scythian, even though the Scyths lived in a region extending further west than the Western group. The northwestern branch included Median, and Parthian, while the southwestern branch included Old Persian.

B. Indo-Aryan

The Indo-Aryan or Indic languages are a branch of the Indo-Iranian subfamily with a total number of native speakers of more than 900 million. The largest in terms of native speakers being Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu, about 540 million), Bangali (about 200 million), Punjabi (about 100 million), Marathi (about 90 million), Gujarati (about 45 million), Nepali (about 40 million), Oriya (about 30 million), Sindhi (about 20 million) and Assamese (about 14 million).

The earliest evidence of the group is from Vedic Sanskrit, the language used in the ancient preserved texts of the Indian subcontinent, the foundational canon of Hinduism known as the Vedas. The Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni is of similar age as the Rigveda, but the only evidence is a number of loanwords.

In the 4^th c. BC, the Sanskrit language was codified and standardised by the grammarian Panini, called “Classical Sanskrit” by convention. Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects (Prakrits) continued to evolve and, in medieval times, diversified into various Middle Indic dialects.

C. Nuristani

The recent view is to classify Nuristani as an independent branch of the Indo-Iranian language family, instead of the the Indic or Iranian group. In any event, it would seem they arrived in their present homeland at a very early date, and never entered the western Punjab of Pakistan.

1.7.3. Other Indo-European Dialects of Europe

I. Albanian

Albanian an Indo-European language spoken by over 8 million people primarily in Albania, Kosovo, and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, but also by smaller numbers of ethnic Albanians in other parts of the Balkans, along the eastern coast of Italy and in Sicily, as well other emigrant groups.

Albanian dialects Gheg, Tosk. Communities of Arbëreshë- and Arvanitika-speakers

The Albanian language has no living close relatives among the modern languages. There is no scholarly consensus over its origin and dialectal classification, although some scholars derive it from the Illyrian language, and others claim that it derives from Thracian.

While it is considered established that the Albanians originated in the Balkans, the exact location from which they spread out is hard to pinpoint. Despite varied claims, the Albanians probably came from farther north and inland than would suggest the present borders of Albania, with a homeland concentrated in the mountains.

NOTE. Given the overwhelming amount of shepherding and mountaineering vocabulary as well as the extensive influence of Latin, it is more likely the Albanians come from north of the Jireček line, on the Latin-speaking side, perhaps in part from the late Roman province of Dardania from the western Balkans. However, archaeology has more convincingly pointed to the early Byzantine province of Praevitana (modern northern Albania) which shows an area where a primarily shepherding, transhumance population of Illyrians retained their culture.

The period in which Proto-Albanian and Latin interacted was protracted and drawn out over six centuries, 1^st c. AD to 6^th or 7^th c. AD. This is born out into roughly three layers of borrowings, the largest number belonging to the second layer. The first, with the fewest borrowings, was a time of less important interaction. The final period, probably preceding the Slavic or Germanic invasions, also has a notably smaller amount of borrowings. Each layer is characterized by a different treatment of most vowels, the first layer having several that follow the evolution of Early Proto-Albanian into Albanian; later layers reflect vowel changes endemic to Late Latin and presumably Proto-Romance. Other formative changes include the syncretism of several noun case endings, especially in the plural, as well as a large scale palatalization.

A brief period followed, between 7^th c. AD and 9^th c. AD, that was marked by heavy borrowings from Southern Slavic, some of which predate the o→a shift common to the modern forms of this language group. Starting in the latter 9^thc. AD, a period followed of protracted contact with the Proto-Romanians, or Vlachs, though lexical borrowing seems to have been mostly one sided – from Albanian into Romanian. Such a borrowing indicates that the Romanians migrated from an area where the majority was Slavic (i.e. Middle Bulgarian) to an area with a majority of Albanian speakers, i.e. Dardania, where Vlachs are recorded in the 10^th c. AD. This fact places the Albanians at a rather early date in the Western or Central Balkans, most likely in the region of Kosovo and Northern Albania.

References to the existence of Albanian as a distinct language survive from the 1300s, but without recording any specific words. The oldest surviving documents written in Albanian are the Formula e Pagëzimit (Baptismal formula), Un’te paghesont’ pr’emenit t’Atit e t’Birit e t’Spirit Senit, “I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit”, recorded by Pal Engjelli, Bishop of Durres in 1462 in the Gheg dialect, and some New Testament verses from that period.

II. Paleo-Balkan Languages

A. Phrygian

The Phrygian language was the Indo-European language spoken by the Phrygians, a people that settled in Asia Minor during the Bronze Age. It survived probably into the sixth century AD, when it was replaced by Greek

Traditional Phrygian region and expanded Kingdom.

Ancient historians and myths sometimes did associate Phrygian with Thracian and maybe even Armenian, on grounds of classical sources. Herodotus recorded the Macedonian account that Phrygians migrated into Asia Minor from Thrace (7.73). Later in the text (7.73), Herodotus states that the Armenians were colonists of the Phrygians, still considered the same in the time of Xerxes I. The earliest mention of Phrygian in Greek sources, in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, depicts it as different from Trojan: in the hymn, Aphrodite, disguising herself as a mortal to seduce the Trojan prince Anchises, tells him:

“Otreus of famous name is my father, if so be you have heard of him, and he reigns over all Phrygia rich in fortresses. But I know your speech well beside my own, for a Trojan nurse brought me up at home”. Of Trojan, unfortunately, nothing is known.

Phrygian is attested by two corpora, one, Paleo-Phrygian, from around 800 BC and later, and another after a period of several centuries, Neo-Phrygian, from around the beginning of the Common Era. The Paleo-Phrygian corpus is further divided geographically into inscriptions of Midas-city, Gordion, Central, Bithynia, Pteria, Tyana, Daskyleion, Bayindir, and “various” (documents divers). The Mysian inscriptions show a language classified as a separate Phrygian dialect, written in an alphabet with an additional letter, the “Mysian s”. We can reconstruct some words with the help of some inscriptions written with a script similar to the Greek one.

Phrygian inscription in Midas City.

Ancient historians and myths sometimes did associate Phrygian with Thracian and maybe even Armenian, on grounds of classical sources. Herodotus recorded the Macedonian account that Phrygians migrated into Asia Minor from Thrace (7.73). Later in the text (7.73), Herodotus states that the Armenians were colonists of the Phrygians, still considered the same in the time of Xerxes I. The earliest mention of Phrygian in Greek sources, in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, depicts it as different from Trojan: in the hymn, Aphrodite, disguising herself as a mortal to seduce the Trojan prince Anchises, tells him

Its structure, what can be recovered from it, was typically Indo-European, with nouns declined for case (at least four), gender (three) and number (singular and plural), while the verbs are conjugated for tense, voice, mood, person and number.

Phrygian seems to exhibit an augment, like Greek and Armenian, as in Phryg. eberet, probably corresponding to PIE é-b^her-e-t (cf. Gk. epheret).

A sizable body of Phrygian words are theoretically known; however, the meaning and etymologies and even correct forms of many Phrygian words (mostly extracted from inscriptions) are still being debated.

A famous Phrygian word is bekos, meaning “bread”. According to Herodotus (Histories 2.9) Pharaoh Psammetichus I wanted to establish the original language. For this purpose, he ordered two children to be reared by a shepherd, forbidding him to let them hear a single word, and charging him to report the children’s first utterance. After two years, the shepherd reported that on entering their chamber, the children came up to him, extending their hands, calling bekos. Upon enquiry, the pharaoh discovered that this was the Phrygian word for “wheat bread”, after which the Egyptians conceded that the Phrygian nation was older than theirs. The word bekos is also attested several times in Palaeo-Phrygian inscriptions on funerary stelae. It was suggested that it is cognate to Eng. bake, from PIE b^heh₃g-; cf. Gk. phōgō, “to roast”, Lat. focus, “fireplace”, Arm. bosor, “red”, and bots “flame”, Ir. goba “smith, etc.

Phryg. bedu (<PIE wed-) according to Clement of Alexandria’s Stromata, quoting one Neanthus of Cyzicus means “water”. The Macedonians are said to have worshiped a god called Bedu, which they interpreted as “air”. The god appears also in Orphic ritual.

Other Phrygian words include:

· Phryg. anar, “husband”, “man”, from PIE (a)nḗr, “man”; cf. Gk. anḗr, “man, husband”.

· Phryg. belte, “swamp”, from PIE root b^hel-, “to gleam”; cf. Gk. baltos, “swamp”.

· Phryg. brater, “brother”, from PIE b^hrāter; cf. Gk. phrātēr.

· Phryg. ad-daket, “does, causes”, from PIE stem d^hē-k-; cf. Gk. ethēka.

· Phryg. germe, “warm”, from PIE g^whermós; cf. Gk. thermós.

· Phryg. gdan, “earth”, from PIE d^hg^hōm; cf. Gk. khthōn.

B. Illyrian

The Illyrian languages are a group of Indo-European languages that were spoken in the western part of the Balkans in former times by ethnic groups identified as Illyrians: Delmatae, Pannoni, Illyrioi, Autariates, Taulanti.

Roman provinces in the Balkans, 2^nd century AD: A. Spalatum (Split); 1. Raetia; 2. Noricum; 3. Pannonia; 4. Illyricum; 5. Dacia; 6. Moesia; 7. Tracia.

The main source of authoritative information about the Illyrian language consists of a handful of Illyrian words cited in classical sources, and numerous examples of Illyrian anthroponyms, ethnonyms, toponyms and hydronyms. Some sound-changes and other language features are deduced from what remains of the Illyrian languages, but because no writings in Illyrian are known, there is not sufficient evidence to clarify its place within the Indo-European language family aside from its probable Centum nature.

NOTE. A grouping of Illyrian with the Messapian language has been proposed for about a century, but remains an unproven hypothesis. The theory is based on classical sources, archaeology, as well as onomastic considerations. Messapian material culture bears a number of similarities to Illyrian material culture. Some Messapian anthroponyms have close Illyrian equivalents. A relation to the Venetic language and Liburnian language, once spoken in northeastern Italy and Liburnia respectively, is also proposed.

A grouping of Illyrian with the Thracian and Dacian language in a “Thraco-Illyrian” group or branch, an idea popular in the first half of the 20^th century, is now generally rejected due to a lack of sustaining evidence, and due to what may be evidence to the contrary. Also, the hypothesis that the modern Albanian language is a surviving Illyrian language remains very controversial among linguists.

B. Thracian

Excluding Dacian, whose status as a Thracian language is disputed, Thracian was spoken in in what is now southern Bulgaria, parts of Serbia, the Republic of Macedonia, Northern Greece – especially prior to Ancient Macedonian expansion –, throughout Thrace (including European Turkey) and in parts of Bithynia (North-Western Asiatic Turkey). Most of the Thracians were eventually Hellenized (in the province of Thrace) or Romanized (in Moesia, Dacia, etc.), with the last remnants surviving in remote areas until the 5^th century.

As an extinct language with only a few short inscriptions attributed to it (v.i.), there is little known about the Thracian language, but a number of features are agreed upon. A number of probable Thracian words are found in inscriptions – most of them written with Greek script – on buildings, coins, and other artifacts. Some Greek lexical elements may derive from Thracian, such as balios, “dappled” (< PIE b^hel-, “to shine”, Pokorny also cites Illyrian as possible source), bounos, “hill, mound”, etc.

C. Dacian

The Dacian language was an Indo-European language spoken by the ancient people of Dacia. It is often considered to have been a northern variant of the Thracian language or closely related to it.

There are almost no written documents in Dacian. Dacian used to be one of the major languages of South-Eastern Europe, stretching from what is now Eastern Hungary to the Black Sea shore. Based on archaeological findings, the origins of the Dacian culture are believed to be in Moldavia, being identified as an evolution of the Iron Age Basarabi culture.

It is unclear exactly when the Dacian language became extinct, or even whether it has a living descendant. The initial Roman conquest of part of Dacia did not put an end to the language, as Free Dacian tribes such as the Carpi may have continued to speak Dacian in Moldavia and adjacent regions as late as the 6^th or 7^th century AD, still capable of leaving some influences in the forming Slavic languages.

According to one hypothesis, a branch of Dacian continued as the Albanian language (Hasdeu, 1901). A refined version of that hypothesis considers Albanian to be a Daco-Moesian Dialect that split off from Dacian before 300 BC and that Dacian itself became extinct.

Theoretical scenario: the Albanians as a migrant Dacian people

NOTE. The arguments for this early split before 300 BC include:

o Inherited Albanian words (e.g. PIE mātēr → Alb. motër) shows the transformation Late PIE ā → Alb. o, but all the Latin loans in Albanian having an ā (<PIE ā) shows Lat. ā → Alb. a. Therefore, the transformation happened and ended before the Roman arrival in the Balkans.

o Romanian substratum words shared with Albanian show a Rom. a that corresponds to Alb. o when the source for both sounds is an original common ā (cf. mazãre/modhull<*mādzula, “pea”; raţã/rosë<*rātja: “duck”); therefore, when these words had the same common form in Pre-Romanian and Proto-Albanian the transformation PIE ā → Alb. o had not started yet.

The correlation between these two facts indicates that the split between Pre-Romanian (the Dacians that were later Romanized) and Proto-Albanian happened before the Roman arrival in the Balkans.

E. Paionian

The Paionian language is the poorly attested language of the ancient Paionians, whose kingdom once stretched north of Macedon into Dardania and in earlier times into southwestern Thrace.

Classical sources usually considered the Paionians distinct from Thracians or Illyrians, comprising their own ethnicity and language. Athenaeus seemingly connected the Paionian tongue to the Mysian language, itself barely attested. If correct, this could mean that Paionian was an Anatolian language. On the other hand, the Paionians were sometimes regarded as descendants of Phrygians, which may put Paionian on the same linguistic branch as the Phrygian language.

Modern linguists are uncertain on the classification of Paionian, due to the extreme scarcity of materials we have on this language. However, it seems that Paionian was an independent IE dialect. It shows a/o distinction and does not appear to have undergone Satemization. The Indo-European voiced aspirates became plain voiced consonants, i.e. b^h→b, d^h→d, g^h→g, g^wh→g^w; as in Illyrian, Thracian, Macedonian and Phrygian (but unlike Greek).

F. Ancient Macedonian

The Ancient Macedonian language was the tongue of the Ancient Macedonians. It was spoken in Macedon during the 1^st millennium BC. Marginalized from the 5^th century BC, it was gradually replaced by the common Greek dialect of the Hellenistic Era. It was probably spoken predominantly in the inland regions away from the coast. It is as yet undetermined whether the language was a dialect of Greek, a sibling language to Greek, or an Indo-European language which is a close cousin to Greek and also related to Thracian and Phrygian languages.

Knowledge of the language is very limited because there are no surviving texts that are indisputably written in the language, though a body of authentic Macedonian words has been assembled from ancient sources, mainly from coin inscriptions, and from the 5^th century lexicon of Hesychius of Alexandria, amounting to about 150 words and 200 proper names. Most of these are confidently identifiable as Greek, but some of them are not easily reconciled with standard Greek phonology. The 6,000 surving Macedonian inscriptions are in the Greek Attic dialect.

The Pella curse tablet, a text written in a distinct Doric Greek idiom, found in Pella in 1986, dated to between mid to early 4^th century BC, has been forwarded as an argument that the Ancient Macedonian language was a dialect of North-Western Greek. Before the discovery it was proposed that the Macedonian dialect was an early form of Greek, spoken alongside Doric proper at that time.

The Pella katadesmos, is a katadesmos (a curse, or magic spell) inscribed on a lead scroll, probably dating to between 380 and 350 BC. It was found in Pella in 1986

NOTE. Olivier Masson thinks that “in contrast with earlier views which made of it an Aeolic dialect (O.Hoffmann compared Thessalian) we must by now think of a link with North-West Greek (Locrian, Aetolian, Phocidian, Epirote). This view is supported by the recent discovery at Pella of a curse tablet which may well be the first ‘Macedonian’ text attested (...); the text includes an adverb “opoka” which is not Thessalian.” Also, James L. O’Neil states that the “curse tablet from Pella shows word forms which are clearly Doric, but a different form of Doric from any of the west Greek dialects of areas adjoining Macedon. Three other, very brief, fourth century inscriptions are also indubitably Doric. These show that a Doric dialect was spoken in Macedon, as we would expect from the West Greek forms of Greek names found in Macedon. And yet later Macedonian inscriptions are in Koine avoiding both Doric forms and the Macedonian voicing of consonants. The native Macedonian dialect had become unsuitable for written documents.”

From the few words that survive, a notable sound-law may be ascertained, that PIE voiced aspirates d^h, b^h, g^h, appear as δ (=d[^h]), β (=b[^h]), γ (=g[^h]), in contrast to Greek dialects, which unvoiced them to θ (=t^h), φ (=p^h), χ (=k^h).

NOTE. Since these languages are all known via the Greek alphabet, which has no signs for voiced aspirates, it is unclear whether de-aspiration had really taken place, or whether the supposed voiced stops β, δ, γ were just picked as the closest matches to express voiced aspirates b^h, d^h, g^h.

· PIH d^henh₂-, “to leave”, → A.Mac. δανός (d[^h]anós), “death”; cf. Attic θάνατος (t^hánatos). PIH h₂aid^h- → A.Mac.*ἄδραια (ad[^h]raia), ‘bright weather’, Attic αἰθρία (ait^hría).

· PIE b^hasko- → A.Mac. βάσκιοι (b[^h]áskioi), “fasces”. Compare also for A.Mac. ἀβροῦτες (ab[^h]roûtes) or ἀβροῦϜες (ab[^h]roûwes), Attic ὀφρῦς (op^hrûs), “eyebrows”; for Mac. Βερενίκη (B[^h]ereníkē), Attic Φερενίκη (P^hereníkē), “bearing victory”.

o According to Herodotus (ca. 440 BC), the Macedonians claimed that the Phryges were called Brygoi (<PIE b^hrugo-) before they migrated from Thrace to Anatolia ca. 1200 BC.

o In Aristophanes’ The Birds, the form κεβλήπυρις (keblēpyris), “red-cap bird”, shows a voiced stop instead of a standard Greek unvoiced aspirate, i.e. Macedonian κεβ(α)λή (keb[^h]alē) vs. Greek κεφαλή (kep^halē), “head”.

· If A.Mac. γοτάν (gotán), “pig”, is related to PIE g^wou-, “cow”, this would indicate that the labiovelars were either intact (hence *g^wotán), or merged with the velars, unlike the usual Gk. βοῦς (boûs).

NOTE. Such deviations, however, are not unknown within Greek dialects; compare Dor. γλεπ- (glep-) for common Gk. βλεπ- (blep-), as well as Dor. γλάχων (gláchōn) and Ion. γλήχων (glēchōn) for Gk. βλήχων (blēchōn).

· Examples suggest that voiced velar stops were devoiced, especially word-initially: PIE genu- → A.Mac. κάναδοι (kánadoi), “jaws”; PIE gomb^h- → A.Mac. κόμβους (kómbous), “molars”.

o Compared to Greek words, there is A.Mac. ἀρκόν (arkón) vs. Attic ἀργός (argós); the Macedonian toponym Akesamenai, from the Pierian name Akesamenos – if Akesa- is cognate to Greek agassomai, agamai, “to astonish”; cf. also the Thracian name Agassamenos.

1.7.4. Anatolian Languages

The Anatolian languages are a group of extinct Indo-European languages, which were spoken in Anatolia for millennia, the best attested of them being the Hittite language.

The Anatolian branch is generally considered the earliest to split off the Proto-Indo-European language, from a stage referred to either as Middle PIE or “Indo-Hittite” (PIH), typically a date ca. 3500 BC is assumed. Within a Kurgan framework, there are two possibilities of how early Anatolian speakers could have reached Anatolia: from the north via the Caucasus, and from the west, via the Balkans.

The approximate extent of the Hittite Old Kingdom under Hantili I (ca. 1590 BC) in darkest. Maximal extent of the Hittite Empire ca. 1300 BC is shown in dark color, the Egyptian sphere of influence in light color.

NOTE. The term Indo-Hittite is somewhat imprecise, as the prefix Indo- does not refer to the Indo-Aryan branch in particular, but is iconic for Indo-European (as in Indo-Uralic), and the -Hittite part refers to the Anatolian language family as a whole.

Attested dialects of the Anatolian branch are:

· Hittite (nesili), attested from ca. 1800 BC to 1100 BC, official language of the Hittite Empire.

· Luwian (luwili), close relative of Hittite spoken in Arzawa, to the southwest of the core Hittite area.

· Palaic, spoken in north-central Anatolia, extinct around the 13^th century BC, known only fragmentarily from quoted prayers in Hittite texts.

· Lycian, spoken in Lycia in the Iron Age, most likely a descendant of Luwian, extinct in ca. the 1^st century BC. A fragmentary language, it is also a likely candidate for the language spoken by Trojans.

· Lydian, spoken in Lydia, extinct in ca. the 1^stcentury BC, fragmentary.

· Carian, spoken in Caria, fragmentarily attested from graffiti by Carian mercenaries in Egypt from ca. the 7^thcentury BC, extinct ca. in the 3^rd century BC.

· Pisidian and Sidetic (Pamphylian), fragmentary.

· Milyan, known from a single inscription.

There were likely other languages of the Anatolian branch that have left no written records, such as the languages of Mysia, Cappadocia and Paphlagonia.

Anatolia was heavily Hellenized following the conquests of Alexander the Great, and it is generally thought that by the 1^st century BC the native languages of the area were extinct.

Hittite proper is known from cuneiform tablets and inscriptions erected by the Hittite kings and written in an adapted form of Old Assyrian cuneiform orthography. Owing to the predominantly syllabic nature of the script, it is difficult to ascertain the precise phonetic qualities of a portion of the Hittite sound inventory.

NOTE. The script known as “Hieroglyphic Hittite” has now been shown to have been used for writing the closely related Luwian language, rather than Hittite proper. The later languages Lycian and Lydian are also attested in Hittite territory.

Hittite pictographic writing

The Hittite language has traditionally been stratified – partly on linguistic and partly on paleographic grounds – into Old Hittite, Middle Hittite and New or Neo-Hittite, corresponding to the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms of the Hittite Empire, ca. 1750–1500 BC, 1500–1430 BC and 1430–1180 BC, respectively.

Luwian use according to inscriptions found

Luwian was spoken by population groups in Arzawa, to the west or southwest of the core Hittite area. In the oldest texts, eg. the Hittite Code, the Luwian-speaking areas including Arzawa and Kizzuwatna were called Luwia. From this homeland, Luwian speakers gradually spread through Anatolia and became a contributing factor to the downfall, after circa 1180 BC, of the Hittite Empire, where it was already widely spoken. Luwian was also the language spoken in the Neo-Hittite states of Syria, such as Milid and Carchemish, as well as in the central Anatolian kingdom of Tabal that flourished around 900 BC. Luwian has been preserved in two forms, named after the writing systems used: Cuneiform Luwian and Hieroglyphic Luwian.

For the most part, the immediate ancestor of the known Anatolian languages, Common Anatolian (the Late Proto-Anatolian spoken ca. 2500) has been reconstructed on the basis of Hittite. However, the usage of Hittite cuneiform writing system limits the enterprise of understanding and reconstructing Anatolian phonology, partly due to the deficiency of the adopted Akkadian cuneiform syllabary to represent Hittite sounds, and partly due to the Hittite scribal practices.

NOTE. This especially pertains to what appears to be confusion of voiceless and voiced dental stops, where signs -dV- and -tV- are employed interchangeably different attestations of the same word. Furthermore, in the syllables of the structure VC only the signs with voiceless stops as usually used. Distribution of spellings with single and geminated consonants in the oldest extant monuments indicates that the reflexes of PIE voiceless stops were spelled as double consonants and the reflexes of PIE voiced stops as single consonants. This regularity is the most consistent in in the case of dental stops in older texts; later monuments often show irregular variation of this rule.

Known changes from Middle PIE into Common Anatolian include:

· Voiced aspirates merged with voiced stops: d^h→d, b^h→b, g^h→g.

· Voiceless stops become voiced after accented long-vowel or diphthong: PIH wēk- → CA wēg-(cf. Hitt. wēk-, “ask for”); PIH d^heh₁ti, “putting” → CA dǣdi (cf. Luw. taac- “votive offfering”).

· Conditioned allophone PIH tj → CA tsj, as Hittite still shows.

· PIH h₁ is lost in CA, but for eh₁→ǣ, appearing as Hitt., Pal. ē, Luw., Lyc., Lyd. ā; word-initial h₂→x, non-initial h₂→h; h₃→h.

NOTE 1. Melchert proposes that CA x (voiceless fricative) is “lenited” to h (voiced fricative) under the same conditions as voiceless stops. Also, word-initial h₃ is assumed by some scholars to have been lost already in CA.

NOTE 2. There is an important assimilation of laryngeals within CA: a sequence –VRHV- becomes –VRRV-; cf. PIH sperh₁V- → Hitt. isparr-, “kick flat”; PIH sun-h₃-V- → Hitt. sunna-, “fill”, Pal. sunnuttil-, “outpouring”; etc.

· PIH sonorants are generally stable in CA. Only word-initial r̥ has been eliminated. Word-initial je- shows a trend to become CA e-, but the trend is not complete in CA, as Hittite shows.

· Diphthong evolved as PIH ei → CA long ę; PIH eu → CA ū. PIH oi, ai, ou, au, remain in CA.

NOTE. Common Anatolian preserves PIE vowel system basically intact. Some cite the merger of PIH o and a as a Common Anatolian innovation, but according to Melchert that merger was secondary shared innovation in Hittite, Palaic and Luwian, but not in Lycian. Also, the lengthening of accented short vowels in open syllables cannot be of Common Anatolian, and neither can lengthening in accented closed syllables.

· The CA nominal system shows an archaic productive declension in -i, -u. There are only two grammatical genders, animate and inanimate.

· Hittite verbs are inflected according to two general verbal classes, the mi- and the hi-conjugation.

NOTE. Rose (2006) lists 132 hi-verbs and interprets the hi/mi oppositions as vestiges of a system of grammatical voice, i.e. “centripetal voice” vs. “centrifugal voice”. Additionally, the Hittite verbal system displays two voices (active and mediopassive), two moods (indicative and imperative), and two tenses (present and preterite), two infinitive forms, one verbal substantive, a supine, and a participle.

1.8. Modern Indo-European

1.8.1. Modern Indo-European (MIE) is therefore a set of grammatical rules – including its writing system, noun declension, verbal conjugation and syntax –, designed to systematize the reconstructed PIE language, especially its Europe’s Indo-European dialect, already described above as the IE dialect continuum spoken in Europe until ca. 2000 BC, to adapt it to modern communication needs. Because that language was spoken by a prehistoric society, no genuine sample texts are available, and thus comparative linguistics – in spite of its 200 years’ history – is not in the position to reconstruct exactly their formal language (the one used by learned people at the time), but only approximately how the spoken, vulgar language was like, i.e. the language that later evolved into the different attested Indo-European dialects and languages.

NOTE. Reconstructed languages like Modern Hebrew, Modern Cornish, Modern Coptic or Modern Indo-European may be revived in their communities without being as easy, as logical, as neutral or as philosophical as the million artificial languages that exist today, and whose main aim is to be supposedly ‘better’, or ‘easier’, or ‘more neutral’ than other artificial or natural languages they want to substitute. Whatever the sociological, psychological, political or practical reasons behind the success of such ‘difficult’ and ‘non-neutral’ languages instead of ‘universal’ ones, what is certain is that if somebody learns Hebrew, Cornish, Coptic or Indo-European (or Latin, German, Swahili, Chinese, etc.) whatever the changes in the morphology, syntax or vocabulary that could follow (because of, say, ‘better’ or ‘purer’ or ‘easier’ language systems recommended by their language regulators), the language learnt will still be the same, and the effort made won’t be lost in any possible case.

1.8.2. We deemed it worth it to use the Proto-Indo-European reconstruction for the revival of a complete modern language system, because of the obvious need of a common language within the EU, to substitute the current deficient linguistic policy. This language system, called European or European language (Eurōpaiom), is mainly based on the features of the European or Northwestern dialects, whose speakers – as we have already seen – remained in loose contact for some centuries after the first Late PIE migrations, and have influenced each other in the last millenia within Europe.

NOTE. As Indo-Europeanist López-Menchero puts it, “there are ‘three (Late) Proto-Indo-European languages’ which might be distinguished today:

1) The actual Proto-Indo-European language, spoken by a prehistoric people, the PIE speakers of the Bronze Age, some millennia ago;

2) The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language, which is that being reconstructed by IE scholars using the linguistic, archaeological and historical data available, and which is imperfect by nature, based on more or less certain hypothesis and schools of thought; and

3) The Modern Indo-European language system which, being based on the later, and trying to come near to the former, is neither one nor the other, but a modern language systematized to be used in the modern world”.

NOTE 2. In that sense, some critics have considered the so-called “Indo-European language revival” to be different from (and thus not comparable to) other language revivals, like – as they put it – Hebrew or Cornish, because of the ‘obvious differences that will exist between that ancient Proto-Indo-European language and the Modern Indo-European or European language’. It is important to note that, even though there is a general belief that Modern Hebrew and Ancient Hebrew are the same languages, among Israeli scholars there have been continuated calls for the “Modern Hebrew” language to be called “Israeli Hebrew” or just (preferably) “Israeli”, due to the strong divergences that exist – and further develop with its use – between the modern language spoken in Israel and its theoretical basis, Ancient Hebrew. On that interesting question, Prof. Ghil’ad Zuckermann aconsiders that “Israelis are brainwashed to believe they speak the same language as the prophet Isaiah, a purely Semitic language, but this is false. It's time we acknowledge that Israeli is very different from the Hebrew of the past”. He points out to the abiding influence of modern Indo-European dialects – especially Yiddish, Russian and Polish –, in vocabulary, syntax and phonetics, as imported by Israel's founders. The same could certainly be said of Cornish and other language revivals, and even of some death languages with a continuated use, like the Modern Latin language used by the Catholic Church, which is not comparable to the Classical Latin used by Cicero, not to talk about the real, Vulgar Latin used by Romans. See <http://www.zuckermann.org/>.

1.8.5. Words to complete the MIE vocabulary (in case that no common PIE form is found) are to be taken from present-day IE languages. Loan words – from Greek and Latin, like philosophy, hypothesis, aqueduct, etc. –, as well as modern Indo-European borrowings – from English, like software, from French, like ambassador, from Spanish, like armadillo, from German, like Kindergarten, from Italian, like casino, from Russian, like icon, from Hindi, like pajamas, etc. –, should be used in a pure IE form when possible. They are all Indo-European dialectal words, whose original meaning is easily understood if translated; as, e.g. Greek loan photo could be used as MIE *phōtos [‘p^hō-tos] or [‘fō-tos], a loan word, or as bháuotos [‘b^hawo-tos], a loan translation of Gk. “bright”; it is derived from genitive bhauotós (EIE bhauesós), in compound word bhauotogrbhíā, from verb bhā, to shine, which gives Gk. phosphorus and phot. The second, translated word, should be preferred. ^{^[2]} See §2.9.4, point 4.

1.8.6. The use of modern PIE dialects is probably the best option as an International Auxiliary Language too, because French, German, Spanish, and other natural and artificial languages proposed to substitute English dominance, are only supported by their cultural or social communities, whereas IE native speakers make up the majority of the world’s population, being thus the most ‘democratic’ choice for a language spoken within international organizations and between the different existing nations.

NOTE 1. Because Europe’s Indo-European had other sister dialects spoken at the same time, Hellenic (Modern Proto-Greek) and Aryan (Modern Indo-Iranian) languages can also be revived in the regions where they are currently spoken in the form of modern dialects, as they are not different from MIE than Swedish from Danish, or Spanish from Portuguese. They might also serve as linguae francae for closely related languages or neighbouring regions, i.e. Aryan for Asia, Hellenic for Albanian- and Armenian-speaking territories.

NOTE 2. Anatolianism (Turkish Anadoluculuk) asserts that Turks descend from the indigenous population of ancient Anatolia, based on historical and genetic views. Supported by Turkish intellectuals in the 20^th century, it became essential to the process of nation-building in Turkey, but was substituted by the Pan-Turkic nationalism Mustafa Kemal Atatürk discouraged before his death. If accepted again, Turks could embrace their historical culture by adopting Anatolian (CA), “cousin dialect” of EIE, PGk. and PII, as a modern second language for a modern Turkey, which shares close historical and cultural ties with the European Union and Asia.

NOTE 3. Even though it is clear that our proposal is different from the Hebrew language revival, we think that:

a) Where Jews had only some formal writings, with limited vocabulary, of a language already dead five centuries before they were expelled from Israel in 70 AD, Proto-Indo-European has a continuated history of use and hundreds of living dialects and other very old dead dialects attested, so that its modern use can be considered ‘less artificial’. Thus, even if we had tablets dating from 2000 BC in some dialectal predominant formal EIE language (say, from Pre-Proto-Germanic), the current EIE reconstruction should probably still be used as the main source for Indo-European revival in the European Union.

b) The common culture and religion was probably the basis for the Hebrew language revival in Israel. Proto-Indo-European, whilst the mother tongue of some prehistoric tribe with an own culture and religion, spread into different peoples, with different cultures and religions. There was never a concept of “Indo-European community” after the migrations. But today Indo-European languages are spoken by the majority of the population – in the world and especially within Europe –, and it is therefore possible to use it as a natural and culturally (also “religiously”) neutral language, what may be a significant advantage of IE over any other natural language.

1.7.7. The noun Eurōpaios comes from adjective eurōpaiós, from special genitive Eurōpai of Old Greek Εὐρώπη (Eurṓpē), Εὐρώπα (Eurṓpā), both forms alternating already in the oldest Greek, and both coming from the same PIE feminine ending ā (see § 4.7.8). The Greek ending -ai-o- (see § 4.7.8 for more on this special genitive in -ai) turns into Latin -ae-u-, and so Europaeus. The forms Eurōpā and eurōpaiós are, then, the ‘correct’ ones in MIE, as they are the original Classical forms of a Greek loan word widely used today in modern Indo-European languages – other dialectal variants, as eurōpaís, eurōpaikós, eurōpaiskós, etc. could be also used.

NOTE 1. For Homer, Eurṓpē was a mythological queen of Crete – abducted by Zeus in bull form when still a Phoenician princess –, and not a geographical designation. Later Europa stood for mainland Greece, and by 500 BC its meaning had been extended to lands to the north. The name Europe is possibly derived from the Greek words ευρύς (eurús, “broad”, from PIH h₁urhu-) and ωψ (ops, “face”, from PIH h₃ek^w-), thus maybe reconstructible as MIE *Ūrōqā – broad having been an epithet of Earth in PIE religion. Others suggest it is based on a Semitic word cognate with Akkadian erebu, “sunset” (cf. Arabic maghreb, Hebrew ma’ariv), as from the Middle Eastern vantage point, the sun does set over Europe. Likewise, Asia is sometimes thought to have derived from a Semitic word such as the Akkadian asu, meaning “sunrise”, and is the land to the east from a Middle Eastern perspective, thus maybe MIE *Erōbā. In Greek mythology Έρεβος (Erebos, “deep blackness/darkness or shadow”) was the son of Chaos, the personification of darkness and shadow, which filled in all the corners and crannies of the world. The word is probably from PIH h₁reg^wos (cf. O.N. rœkkr, Goth. riqis, Skr. rajani, Toch. orkäm), although possibly also a loan from Semitic, cf. Hebrew erebh and Akkadian erebu, etc.

NOTE 2. ‘Europe’ is a common evolution of Latin a-endings in French; as in ‘Amerique’ for America, ‘Belgique’ for Belgica, ‘Italie’ for Italia, etc. Eng. Europe is thus a French loan word, as may be seen from the other continents’ names: Asia (not *Asy), Africa (not *Afrik), Australia (not *Australy), and America (not *Amerik).

NOTE 3. Only Modern Greek maintains the form Ευρώπη (Európi) for the subcontinent, but still with adjective ευρωπαϊκό (europaikó), with the same old irregular a-declension and IE ethnic ending -iko-. In Latin there were two forms: Europa, Europaeus, and lesser used Europe, Europensis. The later is usually seen in scientific terms.

NOTE 4. For adj. “European”, compare derivatives from O.Gk. eurōpai-ós (< IE eurōp-ai-ós), also in Lat. europaé-us -> M.Lat. europé-us, in turn giving It., Spa. europeo, Pt., Cat. europeu; from Late Latin base europé- (< IE eurōp-ái-) are extended *europe-is, as Du. europees; from extended *europe-anos are Rom. europene, or Fr. européen (into Eng. european); extended *europe-iskos gives common Germanic and Slavic forms (cf. Ger. Europäisch, Fris. europeesk, Sca. europeisk, Pl. europejski, common Sla. evropsk-, etc.); other extended forms are Ir. Eorpai-gh, Lith. europo-s, Ltv. eiropa-s, etc. For European as a noun, compare, from *europé-anos, Du., Fris. europeaan, from *europé-eros, Ger. Europäer, from ethnic *-ikos, cf. Sla. evropejk-, Mod.Gk. europai-kó, etc.

The regular genitive of the word Eurōpā in Modern Indo-European is Eurōpās, following the first declension. The name of the European language system is Eurōpáiom, inanimate, because in the oldest IE dialects attested, those which had an independent name for languages used the neuter, cf. Gk. n.pl. Ἑλληνικά (^hellēniká), Skr. n.sg. संस्कृतम् (saṃskṛtam), also in Tacitus Lat. uōcābulum latīnum.

NOTE. In other IE languages, however, the language name is an adjective which defines the noun “language”, and therefore its gender follows the general rule of concordance; cf. Lat. f. latīna lingua, or the Slavic examples^{^[3]}; hence MIE eurōpai dńghūs or proper eurōpai dńghwā, European language.

1.7.8. The term Indo-European comes from Greek Ἰνδός (^hIndos), Indus river, from Old Persian Hinduš - listed as a conquered territory by Darius I in the Persepolis terrace inscription.

NOTE 1. The Persian term (with an aspirated initial [s]) is cognate to Sindhu, the Sanskrit name of the Indus river, but also meaning river generically in Indo-Aryan (cf. O.Ind. Saptasindhu, “[region of the] seven rivers”). The Persians, using the word Hindu for Sindhu, referred to the people who lived near the Sindhu River as Hindus, and their religion later became known as Hinduism. The words for their language and region, Hindī or Hindustanī and Hindustan, come from the words Hindu and Hindustan, “India” or “Indian region” (referring to the Indian subcontinent as a whole, see stā) and the adjectival suffix -ī, meaning therefore originally “Indian”.

NOTE 2. Because the term Indo-European (or Indogermanisch in German) is common today to refer to the reconstructed language, we decided to use that traditional name to describe the Proto-European language we want to revive, as a way to familiarize the reader with the European or Europaio language system as a natural, dead language, to distinguish it clearly from other language inventions. However, when speaking in European language, Sindhueurōpaiom (“Indo-European”), Pr̅mo-Sindhueurōpaiom⁸² (“Proto-Indo-European”), or Eurōpās Sindhueurōpaiom (“Europe’s Indo-European”) should to the theoretical linguistic concepts that refer to the ancient reconstructed dialects, while Eurōpaiom (“European”) is clearly the best name for the modern language, just like Israeli is probably the most suited name to refer to Modern Hebrew.

7. Verbs

7.1. Introduction

7.1.1. Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number

1. The inflection of the Verb is called its Conjugation.

2. Through its conjugation the Verb expresses Voice, Mood, Tense, Person and Number.

3. The Voices are two: Active and Middle (or Mediopassive).

4. The Moods can be four: Indicative and Imperative are the oldest ones, while Subjunctive and Optative, which are more recent, are not common to all Indo-European dialects.

5. The General Tenses are three, viz.:

a. The Present

b. The Past or Preterite.

c. The Future

NOTE. The Future Stem is generally believed to have appeared in Late PIE, not being able to spread to some dialects before the general split of the proto-languages; the distinction between a Present and a Future tense, however, is common to all IE languages.

6. The Aspects were up to three:

a. For continued, not completed action, the Present.

b. For the state derived from the action, the Perfect.

c. For completed action, the Aorist.

NOTE 1. There is some confusion on whether the Aorist (from Gk. αοριστος, “indefinite or unlimited”) is a tense or an aspect. This reflects the double nature of the aorist in Ancient Greek. In the indicative, the Ancient Greek aorist represents a combination of tense and aspect: past tense, perfective aspect. In other moods (subjunctive, optative and imperative), however, as well as in the infinitive and (largely) the participle, the aorist is purely aspectual, with no reference to any particular tense. Modern Greek has inherited the same system. In Proto-Indo-European, the aorist was originally just an aspect, but before the split of Late PIE dialects it was already spread as a combination of tense and aspect, just as in Ancient Greek, since a similar system is also found in Sanskrit.

NOTE 2. The original meanings of the past tenses (Aorist, Perfect and Imperfect) are often assumed to match their meanings in Greek. That is, the Aorist represents a single action in the past, viewed as a discrete event; the Imperfect represents a repeated past action or a past action viewed as extending over time, with the focus on some point in the middle of the action; and the Perfect represents a present state resulting from a past action. This corresponds, approximately, to the English distinction between “I ate”, “I was eating” and “I have eaten”, respectively. Note that the English “I have eaten” often has the meaning, or at least the strong implication, of “I am in the state resulting from having eaten”, in other words “I am now full”. Similarly, “I have sent the letter” means approximately “The letter is now (in the state of having been) sent”. However, the Greek, and presumably PIE, perfect, more strongly emphasizes the state resulting from an action, rather than the action itself, and can shade into a present tense.

In Greek the difference between the present, aorist and perfect tenses when used outside of the indicative (that is, in the subjunctive, optative, imperative, infinitive and participles) is almost entirely one of grammatical aspect, not of tense. That is, the aorist refers to a simple action, the present to an ongoing action, and the perfect to a state resulting from a previous action. An aorist infinitive or imperative, for example, does not refer to a past action, and in fact for many verbs (e.g. “kill”) would likely be more common than a present infinitive or imperative. In some participial constructions, however, an aorist participle can have either a tensal or aspectual meaning. It is assumed that this distinction of aspect was the original significance of the Early PIE “tenses”, rather than any actual tense distinction, and that tense distinctions were originally indicated by means of adverbs, as in Chinese. However, it appears that by Late PIE, the different tenses had already acquired a tensal meaning in particular contexts, as in Greek, and in later Indo-European languages this became dominant.

The meanings of the three tenses in the oldest Vedic Sanskrit, however, differs somewhat from their meanings in Greek, and thus it is not clear whether the PIE meanings corresponded exactly to the Greek meanings. In particular, the Vedic imperfect had a meaning that was close to the Greek aorist, and the Vedic aorist had a meaning that was close to the Greek perfect. Meanwhile, the Vedic perfect was often indistinguishable from a present tense (Whitney 1924). In the moods other than the indicative, the present, aorist and perfect were almost indistinguishable from each other. The lack of semantic distinction between different grammatical forms in a literary language often indicates that some of these forms no longer existed in the spoken language of the time. In fact, in Classical Sanskrit, the subjunctive dropped out, as did all tenses of the optative and imperative other than the present; meanwhile, in the indicative the imperfect, aorist and perfect became largely interchangeable, and in later Classical Sanskrit, all three could be freely replaced by a participial construction. All of these developments appear to reflect changes in spoken Middle Indo-Aryan; among the past tenses, for example, only the aorist survived into early Middle Indo-Aryan, which was later displaced by a participial past tense.

7. There are four IE Verbal Stems we will deal with in this grammar:

I. The Present Stem, which gives the Present with primary endings and the Imperfect with secondary endings.

II. The Aorist Stem, always Past, with secondary endings, giving the Aorist, usually in zero-grade, with dialectal augment and sometimes reduplication.

III. The Perfect Stem, giving the Perfect, only later specialized in Present and Past.

IV. The Future Stem, an innovation of Late PIE.

NOTE. Under the point of view of most scholars, then, from this original PIE verbal system, the Aorist merged with the Imperfect Stem in Balto-Slavic, and further with the Perfect Stem in Germanic, Italic, Celtic and Tocharian dialects. The Aorist, meaning the completed action, is then reconstructed as a third PIE tense-aspect, following mainly the findings of Old Indian, Greek, and also – mixed with the Imperfect and Perfect Stems – Latin.

8. The Persons are three: First, Second, and Third.

9. The Numbers in Modern Indo-European are two: Singular and Plural, and it is the only common class with the name. It is marked very differently, though.

NOTE. The reconstructed Dual, as in nouns, whether an innovation or (unlikely) an archaism of Late Proto-Indo-European dialects, is not systematized in MIE, due to its limited dialectal spread and early disappearance.

7.1.2. Noun and Adjective Forms

1. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included in the inflection of the Indo-European Verb:

A. Verbal Nouns existed in Proto-Indo-European, but there is no single common prototype for a PIE Infinitive, as they were originally nouns which later entered the verbal conjugation and began to be inflected as verbs. There are some successful infinitive endings, though, that will be later explained.

NOTE 1. It is common to most IE languages that a special case-form (usually dative or accusative) of the verbal nouns froze, thus entering the verbal inflection and becoming infinitives. Although some endings of those successful precedents of the infinitives may be reproduced with some certainty for PIE, the (later selected) dialectal case-forms may not, as no general pattern is found.

NOTE 2. A common practice in Proto-Indo-European manuals (following the Latin tradition) is to name the verbs conjugated in first person present, e.g. esmi, I am, for the verb es, to be, or bherō (also probably older Athematic bhérmi), I carry, for the verb bhér-, to carry.

B. The Participles are older adjectives which were later included in the verbal inflection.

I. The oldest known is the Present Participle, in -nt.

II. The Perfect Participle, more recent, shows multiple endings, as -ues, -uos, -uet, -uot.

III. Middle Participles, an innovation in Late PIE, end in -meno, -mōno, -mno; and also some in -to, -no, -lo, -mo, etc.

C. The Gerund and the Absolutive, not generalized in Late PIE, indicated possibility or necessity.

2. The Participles are used as follows:

A. The Present Participle has commonly the same meaning and use as the English participle in -ing; as, woqnts, calling, legénts134, reading.

B. The Perfect Participle has two uses:

I. It is sometimes equivalent to the English perfect passive participle; as, tektós34, sheltered, adkēptós, accepted, and often has simply an adjective meaning.

II. It is used with the verb es, to be, to form the static passive; as, i woqātós esti, he is called.

NOTE 1. Some questions about the participles are not easily conciled: in Latin, they are formed with e ending and are stems in i; in Greek, they are formed in o and are consonantal stems. Greek, on the other hand, still shows remains of the thematic vowel in participles of verba vocalia -āiont-, -ēiont-, etc. Latin doesn’t.

NOTE 2. The static passive is a new independent formation of many Indo-European dialects, not common to Late PIE, but probably a common resource of Europe’s Indo-European, easily loan translated from Romance, Germanic and Balto-Slavic languages into Modern Indo-European as auxiliary verb to be + perfect participle.

C. The Gerundive is often used as an adjective implying obligation, necessity, or propriety (ought or must); as, i awisdhíjendhos esti, he must be heard.

NOTE. The verb is usually at the end of the sentence, as in Latin, Greek and Sanskrit. In Hittite, it is behind the particles (up to seven in succession). In Old Irish it was either at the beginning of the sentence or in second place after a particle. For more on this, see PIE Syntax in Appendix I.

7.1.3. Voices

1. In grammar, Voice is the relationship between the action or state expressed by a verb and its arguments. When the subject is the agent or actor of the verb, the verb is said to be in the Active. When the subject is the patient or target of the action, it is said to be in the Passive.

2. The Active and Middle (or Mediopassive) Voices in Modern Indo-European generally correspond to the active and passive in English, but:

a. The Middle voice often has a reflexive meaning. It generally refers to an action whose object is the subject, or an action in which the subject has an interest or a special participation:

(i) wértetoi, she/he turns (herself/himself).

(ei) wésṇtoi, they dress (themselves).

NOTE. This reflexive sense could also carry a sense of benefaction for the subject, as in the sentence “I sacrificed a goat (for my own benefit)”. These constructions would have used the active form of “sacrificed” when the action was performed for some reason other than the subject’s benefit.

b. The Mediopassive with Passive endings (in -r) is reserved for a very specific use in Modern Indo-European, the Dynamic or Eventive passives; as

(egṓ) bhéromar 20^tós Djówilioi, I became born on July 20^th (or 20 Djówiliī, “20 of July”).

moiros[171] píngetor [172], the wall is being painted or someone paints the wall, lit. “the wall paints (impersonal mark)”.

NOTE 1. The dynamic passive usually means that an action is done, while the static or stative passive means that the action was done at a point in time, that it is already made. The last is obtained in MIE (as usually in Germanic, Romance and Balto-Slavic dialects) with a periphrasis, including the verb es, be. Following the above examples:

(egṓ) gṇ(a)t/bh(e)ṛt esmi 20^ós Djówilios, I (f.) was born on July 20.

moiros pigtósⁱ (esti), the wall (is) [already] painted.

ⁱThe infix -n is lost outside the Present Stem; thus, the Participle is not ~~pingtós~~, but pigtós. Nevertheless, when the n is part of the Basic Stem, it remains. See the Verbal Stems for more details on the Nasal Infix.

NOTE 2. The Modern Indo-European Passive Voice endings (in -r) are older Impersonal and PIE Middle Voice alternative endings, found in Italic, Celtic, Tocharian, Germanic, Indo-Iranian and Anatolian, later dialectally specialized for the passive in some of those dialects. The concepts underlying modern IE Passives are, though, general to the Northern dialects (although differently expressed in Germanic and Balto-Slavic), and therefore MIE needs a common translation to express it. For the stative passive, the use of the verb es-, to be, is common, but dynamic passives have different formations in each dialect. The specialized Mediopassive dialectal endings seems thus the best option keeping thus tradition and unity. See §§ 7.2.2 and 7.2.7.3.

c. Some verbs are only active, as, esmi44, be, ed mi [173], eat, or dōmi96, give

d. Many verbs are middle in form, but active or reflexive in meaning. These are called Deponents: as, kejai77, lay; séqomai60, follow, etc.

7.1.4. Moods

1. While IE II had possibly only Indicative and Imperative, a Subjunctive and an Optative were added in the third stage of Proto-Indo-European, both used in the Present, Perfect and Aorist. Not all dialects, however, developed those new formations further.

2. The Imperative is usually formed with a pure stem, adding sometimes adverbial or pronominal elements.

3. Some common Subjunctive marks are the stem endings -ā, -ē, and -s, but it is more usually formed with the opposition Indicative Athematic vs. Subjunctive Thematic, or Indicative Thematic vs. Subjunctive Thematic with lengthened vowel.

4. The Optative is differentiated from the Subjunctive by its characteristic suffix -iē/-ī; in thematic Tenses it is -oi, i.e. originally the same Subjunctive suffix added to the thematic vowel -o.

5. The Moods are used as follows:

a. The Indicative Mood is used for most direct assertions and interrogations.

b. The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, conditions, and various dependent clauses. It is often translated by the English Indicative; frequently by means of the auxiliaries may, might, would, should; sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive; sometimes by the Infinitive; and often by the Imperative, especially in prohibitions.

c. The Imperative is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command; but the Subjunctive could be used instead.

d. The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject or complement of another verb.

7.1.5. Tenses of the Finite Verb

1. The Tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same meaning as the corresponding tenses in English:

a. Of continued action,

I. Present: bherō24, I bear, I am bearing, I do bear.

II. Imperfect: bheróm, I was bearing.

III. Future: bhersō, I shall bear.

b. Of completed action or the state derived from the action,

IV. Perfect: (bhé)bhora, I have borne.

V. Aorist: (é)bheróm, I bore.

NOTE. Although the Aorist formation was probably generalized in Late PIE, Augment is a dialectal feature only found in Ind.-Ira., Gk., Arm and Phryg. It seems that the great success of that particular augment (similar to other additions like Lat. per- or Gmc. ga-) happened later in the proto-languages. Vedic Sanskrit shows that Augment was not obligatory, and for Proto-Greek, cf. Mycenaean do-ke/a-pe-do-ke, Myc. qi-ri-ja-to, Hom. Gk. πριατο, etc.

7.2. Forms of the Verb

7.2.1. The Verbal Stems

1. The Forms of the verb may be referred to four basic Stems, called (1) the Present, (2) the Aorist, (3) the Perfect and (4) the Future.

NOTE. There are some forms characteristic of each stem, like the suffix -n- or -sko, which give generally Present stems. Generally, however, forms give different stems only when opposed to others.

2. There are some monothematic verbs as esmi, to be, or edmi, eat – supposedly remains of the older situation of IE II. And there are also some traces of recent or even nonexistent mood oppositions. To obtain this opposition there are not only reduplications, lengthenings and alternations, but also vowel changes and accent shifts.

3. There are also some other verbs, not derived from root words, the Denominatives and Deverbatives. The first are derived from nouns; as, strowiō, strew, sprinkle, from strou-, structure; the last are derived from verbs, as, wediō, inform (from weid-33, know, see), also guard, look after.

NOTE. It is not clear whether these Deverbatives – Causatives, Desideratives, Intensives, Iteratives, etc. – are actually derivatives of older PIE roots, or are frozen remains, formed by compounds of older (IE II or Early PIE) independent verbs added to other verbs, the ones regarded as basic.

5. Reduplication is another common resource; it consists of the repetition of the root, either complete or abbreviated; as, sisdō, sit down, settle down (or sizdō, as Lat. sisto, Gk. hidzein, found in nísdos/nízdos, nest, from sed-44, sit), gígnoskō, know (as Gk. gignosko, from gnō-100), mímnāskō, remember (from men-178, think), etc.

6. The Stem Vowel has no meaning in itself, but it helps to build different stems, whether thematic or semithematic (those which can be thematic and athematic), opposed to athematics. Thus, It can be used to oppose a) Indicative Athematic to Subjunctive Thematic, b) Present Thematic to Imperfect Athematic, c) Active to Middle voice, etc. Sometimes an accent shift helps to create a distinctive meaning, too.

7. Stems are inflected, as in the declension of nouns, with the help of lengthenings and endings (or “desinences”).

7.2.2. Verb-Endings

1. Every form of the finite verb is made up of two parts:

I. The Stem. This is either the root or a modification or development of it.

II. The Ending or Desinence, consisting of:

a. The signs of Mood and Tense.

b. The Personal Ending.

Thus in the verb bhér-se-ti, he will carry, the root is bher-, carry, modified into the thematic future verb-stem bher-s-e/o-, will carry, which by the addition of the personal primary ending -ti becomes the meaningful bhérseti; the ending -ti, in turn, consists of the (probably) tense-sign -i and the personal ending of the third person singular, -t.

2. Verbal endings can thus define the verb Stem, Tense and Mood.

The primary series indicates present and future, and -mi, -si, -ti, and 3^rd Pl. -nti are the most obvious formations of Late PIE. The secondary endings indicate Past; as, -m, -s, -t and 3^rd Pl. -nt. The subjunctive and optative are usually marked with the secondary endings, but in the subjunctive primary desinences are attested sometimes. The imperative has Ø or special endings.

NOTE. Although not easily reconstructed, Late Proto-Indo-European had already independent formations for the first and second person plural. However, there were probably no common endings used in all attested dialects, and therefore a selection has to be made for MIE, v.i.

They can also mark the person; those above mark the first, second and third person singular and third plural. Also, with thematic vowels, they mark the voice: -ti Active Prim. | -toi Middle Prim. | -tor Passive, and so on.

3. The Augment was used in the southern dialects – i.e. Indo-Iranian, Greek & Armenian – to mark the Past Tense (i.e., the Aorist and the Imperfect). It was placed before the Stem, and consisted generally of a stressed é-, which is a dialectal Graeco-Aryan feature not generally used in MIE.

NOTE. Some common variants existed, as lengthened ḗ-, cf. Gk. η<ē/ā and ω<ō , the so-called Wackernagel contractions of the Augment and the beginning of the verbal root, which happened already by 2000 BC. These are different from those which happened in Attic Greek by 1000 BC.

4. Modern Indo-European verbal endings, as they are formed by the signs for mood and tense combined with personal endings, may be organized in five series.

		ACTIVE		MIDDLE (or Middle-Passive)
		Primary	Secondary	Primary	Secondary	Passive-only
Sg.	1.	-mi	-m	-(m)ai	-ma	-(m)ar
	2.	-si	-s	-*soi*	-so	-*sor*
	3.	-ti	-t	-*toi*	-to	-*tor*
Pl.	1.	-*mes/-mos*	-me/-mo	-*mesdha*	-*medha*	-*mosṛ/-mor*
	2.	-te	-te	-*dhe*	-*dhue*	-*dhuer*
	3.	-*nti*	-nt	-*ntoi*	-*nto*	-*ntor*

NOTE. The Middle is easily reconstructed for the singular and the third person plural of the secondary endings. For the rest of the Primary Endings there is no consensus as how they looked like in PIE. What we do know is:

1. that the Southern and Anatolian dialects show Middle Primary Endings in -i, and second plural forms in -medha (PIH med^hh₂), -mesdha (PIH mesd^hh₂), which may be also substituted by the common PIE forms in -men-, which is found as Gk. -men, Hitt. -meni.

2. that Latin, Italic, Celtic and Tocharian had Mediopassive Primary Endings in -r, whilst in Indo-Iranian and Anatolian, such endings coexisted with the general thematic -oi.

3. that therefore both Mediopassive endings (-r and -oi) coexisted already in the earliest reconstructible Proto-Indo-European; and

4. that the Middle endings were used for the Middle Voice in Graeco-Aryan dialects, while in the Northern dialects they were sometimes specialized as Passives or otherwise disappeared.

Thus, following the need for clarity in Modern Indo-European, we reserve the PIE endings in -r for the dynamic passive, and keep those in -i for the original Middle Voice.

5. The Perfect endings are as follows:

		Perfect
sg.	1.	-a
	2.	-ta
	3.	-e
pl.	1.	-mé
	2.	-té
	3.	-(ḗ)r

6. The Thematic and Athematic endings of Active, Middle and Passive are:

Active		Athematic		Thematic
		Primary	Secondary	Primary	Secondary
sg.	1.	-mi	-m	-ō, -*omi*	-om
	2.	-si	-s	-*esi*	-es
	3.	-ti	-t	-*eti*	-et
pl.	1.	-*mes/-mos*	-me/-mo	-*omes/-omos*	-*ome/-omo*
	2.	-te		-*ete*
	3.	-ṇti	-ṇt	-*onti*	-*ont*

NOTE. Athematic Desinences in *-enti, as found in Mycenaean and usually reconstructed as proper PIE endings, weren’t probably common PIE forms. Compare Att.Gk. -aasi (<-ansi<-anti), or O.Ind. -ati, both remade from an original zero-grade PIE -n̥ti. In fact, Mycenaean shows some clearly remade examples, as Myc. e-e-esi<*esenti (cf. Ion. εων), or ki-ti-je-si (<ktíensi)

Mediopass.		Athematic		Thematic		PASSIVE*
		Primary	Secondary	Primary	Secondary	Athematic	Thematic
sg.	1.	-*mai*	-ma	-ai, -*omai*	-*oma*	-*mar*	-ar, -*omar*
	2.	-*soi*	-so	-*esoi*	-*eso*	-*sor*	-*esor*
	3.	-*toi*	-to	-*etoi*	-*eto*	-*tor*	-*etor*
pl.	1.	-*mesdha*	-*medha*	-*omesdha*	-*omedha*	-mo(s)r	-*omo*(s)r
	2.	-*dhe*	-*dhue*	-*edhe*	-*edhue*	-*dhuer*	-*edhuer*
	3.	-ṇ*toi*	-ṇto	-*ontoi*	-*onto*	-ṇ*tor*	-*ontor*

a. The secondary endings are actually a negative term opposed to the primaries. They may be opposed to the present or future of indicative, they may indicate indifference to Tense, and they might also be used in Present.

NOTE 1. It is generally accepted that the Secondary Endings appeared first, and then an -i (or an -r) was added to them. Being opposed to the newer formations, the older endings received a Preterite (or Past) value, and became then Secondary.

NOTE 2. Forms with secondary endings – i.e. without a time marker -i or -r (without distinction of time) –, not used with a Preterite value, are traditionally called Injunctives, and have mainly a modal value. The Injunctive seems to have never been an independent mood, though, but just another possible use of the original endings in Proto-Indo-European.

b. The Middle-Active Opposition is not always straightforward, as there are only-active and only-middle verbs, as well as verbs with both voices but without semantic differences between them.

7.2.3. The Thematic Vowel

1. Stem vowels are – as in nouns – the vowel endings of the Stem, especially when they are derivatives. They may be i, u, ā, ē (and also ō in Roots). But the most extended stem vowel is e/o (also lengthened ē/ō), called Thematic Vowel, which existed in PIH before the split of the Anatolian dialects, and which overshadowed the (older) athematic stems by Late PIE. The thematization of stems, so to speak, relegated the athematic forms especially to the aorist and to the perfect; most of the old athematics, even those in -ā- and -ē-, are usually found extended with thematic endings -ie- or -io- in IE III.

NOTE. The old thematics were usually remade, but there are some which resisted this trend; as bherō, I bear, dō, I give, or i!, go!

The stem vowel has sometimes a meaning, as with -ē- and -ā-, which can indicate state. There are also some old specializations of meanings, based on oppositions:

a. Thematic vs. Athematic:

- Athematic Indicative vs. Thematic Subjunctive. The contrary is rare.

- Thematic Present vs. Athematic Aorist, and vice versa.

- Thematic 1^st Person Sg. & Pl. and 3^rd Person Pl., and Athematic the rest.

- It may also be found in the Middle-Active voice opposition.

b. Thematic stem with variants:

- The first person, thematic in lengthened -ō.

- Thematic o in 1^st Person Sg. & Pl. and 3^rd Person Pl.; e in 2^nd and 3^rd Person Sg. and 2^nd Pl. There is also an archaic 3^rd Person Pl. in e, as in senti, they are.

c. Opposition of Thematic stems. This is obtained with different vowel grades of the root and by the accent position.

2. In the Semithematic inflection the Athematic forms alternate with Thematic ones.

NOTE. The semithematic is for some an innovation of Late PIE, which didn’t reach some of the dialects, while for others it represents a situation in which the opposition Thematic-Athematic and the Accent Shifts of an older system have been forgotten, leaving only some mixed remains.

7.2.4. Verb Creation

1. With Verb Creation we refer to the way verbs are created from Nouns and other Verbs by adding suffixes and through reduplication of stems.

2. There are generally two kinds of suffixes: Root and Derivative; they are so classified because they are primarily added to the Roots or to Derivatives of them. Most of the suffixes we have seen (like -u, -i, -n, -s, etc.) is a root suffix.

Derivative suffixes may be:

a. Denominatives, which help create new verbs from nouns; as, -ie/-io.

b. Deverbatives, those which help create new verbs from other verbs; as, -ei- (plus root vocalism o), -i-, -s-, -sk-, -ā-, -ē- etc.

3. Reduplication is usual in many modern languages. It generally serves to indicate intensity or repetition in nouns; in the Proto-Indo-European verb it had two uses:

a. It helped create a Deverbative, opposed to root verbs, generally in the Present, especially in intensives; as, bhérbher- from bher-, carry, or gálgal- (cf. O.C.S. glagolją) from gal-[174], call; etc.

NOTE. It is doubtful whether these are remains of an older system based on the opposition Root/Deverbative, prior to the more complicated developments of Late PIE in suffixes and endings, or, on the contrary, it is the influence of the early noun derivations.

b. Essentially, though, reduplication has lost its old value and marks the different stems, whether Present, Aorist or Perfect. There are some rules in reduplication:

- In the Present, it can be combined with roots and accent; as, bhíbher-mi, gígnō-mi, etc.

- In the Perfect, generally with root vocalism and special endings; as, bhébhor-a, gégon-a, etc.

NOTE. Reduplicated Perfects show usually o-grade root vowel (as in Gk., Gmc. and O.Ind.), but there are exceptions with zero-grade vocalism, cf. Lat. tutudi, Gk. mémikha, tétaka, gégaa.

- Full reduplications of intensives (cf. bher-bher-, mor-mor-) are different from simple reduplications of verbal Stems, which are formed by the initial consonant and i in the Present (cf. bhi-bher-, mi-mno-, pí-bo-), or e in the Perfect and in the Aorist (cf. bhe-bher-, gé-gon, ké-klow-).

NOTE. In other cases, reduplicated stems might be opposed, for example, to the Aorist to form Perfects or vice versa, or to disambiguate other elements of the stem or ending.

7.2.5. Separable Verbs

1. A Separable Verb is a verb that is composed of a Verb Stem and a Separable Affix. In some verb forms, the verb appears in one word, whilst in others the verb stem and the affix are separated.

NOTE. A Prefix is a type of affix that precedes the morphemes to which it can attach. A separable affix is an affix that can be detached from the word it attaches to and located elsewhere in the sentence in a certain situation.

2. Many Modern Indo-European verbs are separable verbs, as in Homeric Greek, in Hittite, in the oldest Vedic and in modern German ‘trennbare Verben’.

Thus, for example, the (Latin) verb supplakātus, beg humbly, supplicate (from suppláks, suppliant, from PIE plk-, be flat), gives sup wos (egṓ) plakāiō (cf. O.Lat. sub uos placō), I entreat you, and not (egṓ) ~~wos supplak~~~~āiō~~, as Classic Lat. uos supplicō.

NOTE. German is well known for having many separable affixes. In the sentence Ger. Ich komme gut zu Hause an the prefix an in the verb ankommen is detached. However, in the participle, as in Er ist angekommen, “He has arrived”, it is not separated. In Dutch, compare Hij is aangekomen, “He has arrived”, but Ik kom morgen aan, I shall arrive tomorrow.

English has many phrasal or compound verb forms that act in this way. For example, the adverb (or adverbial particle) up in the phrasal verb to screw up can appear after the subject (“things”) in the sentence: “He is always screwing things up”.

Non-personal forms, i.e. Nouns and Adjectives, formed a karmadharaya with the preposition, as O.Ind. prasādaḥ, “favour”, Lat subsidium, praesidium, O.Ind. apaciti, Gk. apotisis , “reprisal”, etc.

NOTE. There are, indeed, many non-separable verbs, like those formed with non-separable prefixes; as, re-.

7.3. The Conjugations

7.3.1. Conjugation is the traditional name of a group of verbs that share a similar conjugation pattern in a particular language, a Verb Class. This is the sense in which we say that Modern Indo-European verbs are divided into twelve Regular Conjugations; it means that any regular Modern Indo-European verb may be conjugated in any person, number, tense, mood and voice by knowing which of the twelve conjugation groups it belongs to, and its main stems.

NOTE. The meaning of Regular and Irregular becomes, thus, a matter of choice, although the selection is obviously not free. We could have divided the verbs into ten conjugations, or twenty, or just two (say Thematic and Athematic), and have left the less common types within them for a huge group of irregular verbs. We believe that our choice is in the middle between a simplified system (thus too artificial), with many irregular conjugations – which would need in turn more PIE data for the correct inflection of verbs –, and an extensive conjugation system – trying to include every possible inflection attested in Late PIE –, being thus too complicated and therefore difficult to learn.

It is clear that the way a language is systematized influences its evolution; to avoid such artificial influence we try to offer verbal groupings as natural as possible – of those verbs frequent in the Late Proto-Indo-European verbal system –, without being too flexible to create a defined and stable (and thus usable) system.

7.3.2. Modern Indo-European verbs are divided into two Conjugation Groups: the Thematic, newer and abundant in Late PIE, and the (older) Athematic Verbs. These groups are, in turn, subdivided into eight and four subgroups respectively.

NOTE. It is important to note that the fact that a root is of a certain type doesn’t imply necessarily that it belongs to a specific conjugation, as they might be found in different subgroups depending on the dialects (for Eng. love, cf. Lat. lubet, Skr. lubhyati, Gmc. liuban), and even within the same dialect (cf. Lat. scatō, scateō). That’s why Old Indian verbs are not enunciated by their personal forms, but by their roots.

Verbs cannot appear in different Conjugation Groups; they are either Thematic or Athematic.

NOTE 1. Some verbs (mainly PIE roots) are believed to have had an older Athematic conjugation which was later reinterpreted as Thematic, thus giving two inflection types and maybe the so-called Semithematic inflection (v.i.). Therefore, old root verbs like bher-, carry, may appear as bhersi or bhéresi, you carry, and so on.

NOTE 2. Instead of this simple classification of verbs into modern groupings (the MIE Conjugations), a common, more traditional approach is used in this grammar to explain how Proto-Indo-European verbs and verbal stems were usually built from roots and regularly conjugated.

I. The Thematic Conjugation

The First or Thematic Conjugation Group is formed by the following 8 subgroups:

1) Root Verbs with root vowel e in the Present and o in the Perfect:

o Triliteral: deikō, dikóm, doika, deiksō, show, etc.

o Concave: teqō, teqóm, toqa/tōqa, teqsō, escape, séqomai, follow, etc.

NOTE. For IE teqō, cf. O.Ir. téchid/táich(<e/ō).

2) Concave Root Verbs with non-regular Perfect vocalism. Different variants include:

o labhō, lābha, take; lawō, lāwa, enjoy, slabai, slāboma, fall (Middle Voice); aidai, praise.

NOTE. Compare Gk. αιδομαι, O.ind. ile, Gmc. part. idja-. The first sentence of the Rigveda may already be translated to Modern Indo-European with the aforementioned verbs.

o kano, kékana/kékāna, sing.

o legō, lēga, join, read, decide.

o lowō, lōwa, wash.

o rādō, rāda, shuffle, scrape, scratch.

o rēpō, rēpa, grab, rip out.

o rōdō, rōda, gnaw.

3) Verba Vocalia (i.e., extended forms --io-, -ḗ-io-, -í-jo-, -ú-io-)

o amāiō, love.

o lubhēiō, love, desire.

o sāgijō, look for, search.

o arguiō reason, argue (cf. Lat. arguō, Hitt. arkuwwai).

4) Verbs in -io:

o Triliteral: kupiō, kup(i)óm, koupa, keupsō, be worried.

o Concave: jakiō, jēka, throw.

o Lamed-he: pariō, pepra/péprōka , produce.

o Reduplicated Intensives: kárkariō, proclaim, announce (cf. Gk. καρκαίρω, but Skr. carkarti)

NOTE. Examples of thematic reduplicated intensives include also common forms like Greek πορφυρω, παμπαινω, γαργαιρω, μορμορω, μερμηριζω, καγχαλαω, μαρμαιρω, δενδιλλω, λαλεω, and, in other IE dialects, Slavic glagoljo, Latin (‘broken’ reduplication with different variants) bombico, bombio, cachinno, cacillo, cracerro, crocito, cucullio, cucurrio, curculio, didintrio, lallo, imbubino, murmillo, palpor, pipito, plipio, pipio, tetrinnio, tetrissito, tintinnio, titio, titubo, and so on.

5) Intensives-Inchoatives in -sko.

o Of Mobile Suffix: swēdhskō, swēdhióm, swēdhua, swēdhsō, get used to.

o Of Permanent Suffix: pṛkskṓ, inquire.

6) With nasal infix or suffix.

o Perfect with o vocalism: jungō, jugóm, jouga, jeugsō, join.

o Reduplicated Perfect: tundō, tét(o)uda/tút(o)uda, strike.

o Convex: bhrangō, bhrēga, break.

o Nasal Infix and Perfect with o root: gusnō, gousa (cf. Lat. dēgūnō, dēgustus)

o Nasal Infix and Reduplicated Perfect: cf. Lat. tollō, sustulii (supsi+tét-), lift.

7) With Reduplicated Present

o sisō, sēwa, sow.

o gignō, gegna, gégnāka, produce.

8) Other Thematics:

o pḷdō, pép(o)la,

o w(e)idēiō, woida,

o etc.

II. The Athematic Conjugation

Verbs of the Second or Athematic Conjugation Group may be subdivided into:

1) Monosyllabic:

o In Consonant: esmi, be, edmi, eat, ēsmai, find oneself, be.

o In ā (i.e. PIH *h₂): snāmi, swim, bhamai, speak.

o In ē (i.e. PIH *h₁): bhlēmi, cry, (s)remai, calculate.

o With Nasal infix: leiq- (lineqti/linqṇti), leave, klew- (kluneuti/klununti), hear, pew- (punāti/punānti), purify, etc. – but, see the suffixed (4.III) type below.

NOTE. These verbal types appear mostly in Indo-Iranian and Hittite examples, and could therefore be more properly included in the suffixed (4.III) type below.

o Others: eími, go, etc.

2) Reduplicated:

o (sí)stāmi, stand.

o (dhí)dhēmi, set, place, jíjēmi, throw.

o (dí)dōmi, give.

o (bhí)bheimi, fear.

o kíkumi/kuwóm/kékuwa, strengthen.

3) Bisyllabic:

o wémāmi, vomit.

NOTE. Possibly Latin forms with infinitive -āre, Preterite -ui and participle -itus are within this group; as, crepō, fricō, domō, tonō, etc.

o bhélumi, weaken, (cf. Goth. bliggwan, “whip”)

NOTE. This verb might possibly be more correctly classified as bheluiō, within the Verba Vocalia, type 3) in -u-io of the Thematic Group.

4) Suffixed:

o In nā (<PIH neh₂): pérnāmi, grant, sell (cf. Gk. περνημι, O.Ir. ren(a)id, etc.), qrnāmi, buy (cf. O.Ind. krīnāti, O.Ind. cren(a)im, gr. πρίαμαι, etc).

o In nu: árnumi/órnumi, rise (up).

o With nasal infix: lineqmi (linqō), bhenegmi (bhegō), amneghti (amghō)

NOTE. For these verbs Old Indian shows zero-grade root vowel and alternating suffixes. Greek shows the opposite behaviour, which should be preferred in Modern Indo-European because of its ease of use.

7.4. The Four Stems

7.4.1. The Four Stems

1. The Stems of the Present may be:

I. Roots, especially Thematic, but also Athematic and Semithematic.

II. Reduplicated Roots, especially Athematic.

III. Consonantal stems, all Thematic. They may end in occlusive, or -s and its lengthenings, like -ske/o; as, prk-skó-, ask for, inquire, from zero-grade of prek-, ask.

IV. In Vowel, Thematic in -i-, -u-, and Athematic in -ā, -ē.

V. In Nasal, Thematic and Athematic (especially in -neu/-nu, -nā/-na).

2. The Aorist Stem is opposed to the Present:

A. Aorist Athematic Roots vs. Present Roots and Reduplicates.

B. Aorist Thematic Roots vs. Athematic Presents.

C. Aorist Thematic Reduplicated Roots vs. Athematic Reduplicated Present.

D. Aorist with -s and its lengthenings, both Thematic & Athematic.

E. Aorist with -t and -k are rare, as Lat. feci.

F. Aorist with -ā, -ē, and -i, -u, & their lengthenings.

3. The Stems of the Perfect have usually root vowel -/-Ø, with dialectal reduplication – mainly Indo-Iranian and Greek –, and some especial endings.

4. Modern Indo-European uses a general Future Stem with a suffix -s-, usually Thematic.

NOTE. The future might also be formed with the present in some situations, as in English I go to the museum, which could mean I am going to the museum or I will go to the museum. The Present is, thus, a simple way of creating (especially immediate) future sentences in most modern Indo-European languages, as it was already in Late PIE times.

5. To sum up, there are four inflected Stems, but each one has in turn five inflected forms (Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive, Optative and Participle), and one not inflected (Verbal Noun). Verbal inflection is made with desinences (including Ø), which indicate Person, Time and Voice. The person is thus combined with the other two.

NOTE. The imperfect stem had neither a subjunctive nor an optative formation in Late PIE.

An example of the four stems are (for PIE verbal root leiq-156, leave) léiqe/o- (or nasal linéqe/o-) for the Present, (é)liqé/ó- for the Aorist, (lé)lóiq- for the Perfect, and léiqse/o- for the Future.

7.4.2. The Present Stem

I. Present Stem Formation Paradigm

1. Verbal Roots (Athematic, Semithematic and Thematic) were not very common in Late PIE. They might have only one Stem, or they might have multiple Stems opposed to each other.

2. Reduplicates are usually different depending on the stems: those ending in occlusive or -u- are derived from extended roots, and are used mainly in verbs; those in -s and -u are rare, and are mainly used for the remaining stems.

3. The most prolific stems in Late PIE were those ending in -i, -ē and -ā, closely related. Athematics in -ē and -ā have mostly Present uses (cf. dhē-134, put, do, cā-82, go), as Thematics in -ske/o (as gnō-sko-, know, prk-skó-42, inquire) and Athematics or Thematics with nasal infix (i.e. in -n-, as li-n-eq-, leave, from leiq, or bhu-n-dho-, make aware, from bheudh-60).

II. Present Root Stem

1. A pure Root Stem, with or without thematic vowel, can be used as a Present, opposed to the Aorist, Perfect and sometimes to the Future Stems. The Aorist Stem may also be Root, and it is then distinguished from the Present Stem with 1) vowel opposition, i.e., full grade, o-grade or zero-grade, 2) thematism-athematism, or 3) with secondary phonetic differentiations (as accent shift).

Present verbal roots may be athematic, semithematic and thematic. The athematics were, in Late PIE, only the remains of an older system, and so the semithematics.

2. In Monosyllabic Roots ending in consonant or sonant, the inflection is usually made:

a. in the Active Voice Sg., with root vowel e and root accent

b. in the Active and Middle Voice Pl., root vowel Ø and accent on the ending.

The most common example is es-, be, which has a singular in es- and plural in s-. There are also other monosyllabic verbs, as chen-111, strike, ed-173, eat. Other roots, as eí-61, go, follow this inflection too.

		ed-, eat	chen-, knok	eí-, go	es-, be	dhē-, set, put	dō-, give
sg.	1.	edmi	chenmi	eími	esmi	(dhí)dhēmi	(dí)dōmi
	2.	edsi	chensi	eísi	essi	(dhí)dhēsi	(dí)dōsi
	3.	estiⁱ	chenti	eíti	esti	(dhí)dhēti	(dí)dōti
pl.	1.	dme	chṇmés	imés	sme	(dhí)dhames	(dí)dames
	2.	dte	chṇté	ité	ste	(dhí)dhate	(dí)date
	3.	denti	chṇonti	jenti	senti	(dhí)dhanti	(dí)danti

ⁱ MIE ésti < PIE *édti

NOTE. Most verbs are usually reconstructed with a mobile accent (as in Sanskrit), but we preserve the easier Greek columnar accent; it usually reads dhidhamés, dhidhaté, dhidhánti, or didamés, didaté, didánti.

3. There is also another rare verbal type, Root Athematic with full or long root vowel and fixed root accent, usually called Proterodynamic. It appears frequently in the Middle Voice.

4. Monosyllabic Roots with Long Vowel (as dhē- and dō-) are inflected in Sg. with long vowel, and in Pl. and Middle with -a. They are rare in Present, usually reserved for the Aorist.

5. Disyllabic Roots which preserve an athematic inflection have the Present in full/Ø-vowel. The alternative Ø/full-vowel is generally reserved for the Aorist.

6. In the Semithematic Root Stem, the 3^rd Person Pl. has often an ending preceded by Thematic e/o. That happens also in the 1^st Person Sg., which often has -o or -o-m(i); and in the 1^st Person Pl., which may end in -o-mos, -o-mo.

NOTE. In an old inflection like that of the verbal root es, i.e. esmi-smés, sometimes a Semithematic alternative is found. Compare the paradigm of the verb be in Latin, where zero-grade and o vowel forms are found: s-omi (cf. Lat. sum), not es-mi; s-omes (cf. Lat. sumus), not s-me; and s-onti (cf. Lat. sunt), not s-enti. Such inflection, not limited to Latin, has had little success in the Indo-European verbal system, at least in the dialects that have been attested. There are, however, many examples of semithematic inflection in non-root verbs, what could mean that an independent semithematic inflection existed in PIE, or, on the contrary, that old athematic forms were remade and mixed with the newer thematic inflection (Adrados).

7. Thematic verbal roots have generally an -e/o added before the endings. Therefore, in Athematic stems e/o may be found in the 3^rd P.Pl., in Semithematics in the 1^st P.Sg. and Pl., and in Thematic it appears always.

Thematic inflection shows two general formations:

a. Root vowel e and root accent; as in déiketi, he/she/it shows.

b. Root vowel Ø and accent on the thematic vowel, as in dikóm he/she/it showed.

The first appears usually in the Present, and the second in the Aorist, although both could appear in any of them in PIE. In fact, when both appear in the Present, the a-type is usually a Durative – meaning an action not finished –, while b-type verbs are Terminatives or Punctuals – meaning the conclusion of the action. This semantic value is not general, though, and is often found in Graeco-Aryan dialects.

NOTE. The newer inflection is, thus (in a singular/plural scheme), that of full/full vocalism for Present, Ø/Ø for Aorist. The (mainly) Root Athematic - and Semithematic - inflection in full/Ø appears to be older than the Thematic one. The Thematic inflection probably overshadowed the Athematic and Semithematic ones in IE III, and there are lots of examples of coexisting formations, some of the newer being opposed to the older in meaning.

III. Present Reduplicated Stem

1. Depending on its Formation, present stems may have either Full Reduplication, sometimes maintained throughout the conjugation, or Simple Reduplication, which normally consists of the initial consonant of the root followed by -i-.

Depending on its Meaning, reduplication may have a general value (of Iteration or Intensity), or simply opposed values in individual pairs of Basic Verb-Deverbative. Therefore, it helps to distinguish the verb in its different forms.

2. How Reduplication is made:

I. Full Reduplication, normally found in the Present Stem, repeats the Root or at least the group consonant/sonorant+vowel+consonant/sonorant; as, gal-gal-, talk, bher-bher-, endure, mor-mor-/mur-mur-, whisper, etc.

Full reduplication is also that which repeats a Root with vowel+consonant/sonorant; as, ul-ul-, cry aloud (cf. Lat. ululāre).

II. Simple Reduplication is made:

a. With consonant + i,

- in Athematic verbs; as, bhi-bher, carry (from bher),

- in Thematic verbs; as, gi-gnō-sko-, know (from gnō), etc. si-sdo-, sit down, settle (from zero-grade of sed, sit),

- Some Intensives have half full, half simple Reduplication, as in dei-dik-, show (from deik-).

- There are other forms with -w, -u, as in leu-luk-, shine (from leuk-, light).

- There are also some Perfect stems with i.

b. With consonant + e/ē, as dhe-dhē-, de-dō-, etc.

Simple Reduplication in e appears mainly in the Perfect, while i is characteristic of Present stems. Reduplication in e is also often found in Intensives in southern dialects.

NOTE. Formal reduplication in -i is optional in Modern Indo-European, as it is mostly a Graeco-Aryan feature; as, gignōskō/gnōskō, didō/dō, pibō/pō (i)[175], etc.

NOTE. Reduplication doesn’t affect the different root vowel grades in inflection, and general rules are followed; as, bíbherti-bibhrmés, (s)ístāmi-(s)istamés, etc.

3. The different Meaning of Reduplicates found in PIE are:

- Indo-Iranian and Greek show a systematic opposition Basic Verb - Deverbative Reduplicated, to obtain an Iterative or Intensive verb.

- Desideratives are Reduplicates with i + Root + -se/o, as e.g. men vs. mi-mṇ-so-, think. Such Reduplicates are called Terminatives.

NOTE. Although the Iterative-Intensives, Desideratives and sometimes Terminatives did not succeed in the attested European dialects, we consider it an old resource of Late PIE, probably older than the opposition Present-Perfect. We therefore include this feature in the global MIE system.

IV. Present Consonant Stem

1. Indo-European Roots may be lengthened with an occlusive to give a verb stem, either general or Present-only. Such stems are usually made adding a dental -t, -d, -dh, or a guttural -k, -g, -gh (also -k, -g, -gh), but only rarely with labials or labiovelars. They are all Thematic, and the lengthenings are added to the Root.

NOTE. Such lengthenings were probably optional in an earlier stage of the language, before they became frozen as differentiated vocabulary by Late PIE. Some endings (like -sko, -io, etc.) were still optional in IE III, v.i.

2. Here are some examples:

- t : plek-tō, weave, kan-tō, sing; klus-tiō, hear, listen, etc.

- d : sal-dō, to salt, ekskel-dō, be eminent, pel-dō, beat, etc.

NOTE. The lengthening in -d sometimes is integrated completely to the root (cf. Lat. stridō, tendō), or it appears only in some tenses, cf. Lat. pellō/pepuli/pulsus, but frec. pulsō & pultō,-āre.

- dh : ghṛ-dhiō, gird, gawi-dhē, rejoice; wol-dhō, dominate, etc.

- k : ped-kā, stumble, pleu-kō, fly, gel-kiō, freeze, etc.

- g : tmā-gō, from tem-, cut, etc.

- gh : smē-ghō, nē-ghō, negate, stena-ghō, etc.

- p : wel-pō, wait, from wel-, wish, will, etc.

- bh : gnei-bhō, shave (cf. gneid-, scratch), skre(i)-bhō, scratch to write (from sker-, scratch, scrape), ster-bhō, die (from ster-, get stiff), etc.

NOTE. These lengthenings are considered by some linguists as equally possible root modifiers in Proto-Indo-European to those in -s, -sk, -n-, -nu, -nā, etc. However, it is obvious that these ones (vide infra) appear more often, and that they appear usually as part of the conjugation, while the former become almost always part of the root and are modified accordingly. Whatever the nature and antiquity of all of them, those above are in Modern Indo-European usually just part of existing stems (i.e., part of the IE morphology), while the following extensions are often part of the conjugation.

3. Imperfect Stems in -s and its derivatives, as -sk- and -st-, are almost all Thematic.

NOTE. Thematic suffix -ste/o has usually an Expressive sense, meaning sounds most of the times; as, brestō, tremble, bhrestō, burst, break, etc.

4. Stems in -s have a common specialized use (opposed to Basic stems), marking the Preterite, the Future, and sometimes the Subjunctive.

NOTE 1. Aorist stems in -s are usually Athematic.

NOTE 2. Because of its common use in verbal inflection, deverbatives with a lengthening in -s- aren’t generally opposed in Meaning to their basic stems. There may be found some individual meanings in such opposed stem pairs, though, already in Late PIE; as, Insistents or Iteratives (cf. wéid-s-o, “want to see, go to see”, hence “visit”, as Lat. vīsere, Goth. gaweisōn, O.S. O.H.G. wīsōn, vs. Pres. w(e)id-ḗ-io, see, know, as Lat. vidēre), Causatives, and especially Desideratives (which were also used to form the Future stem in the Southern Dialect). There is, however, no general common meaning reserved for the extended stem in -s. Compare also Lat. pressī <* pres-sai vs. Lat. premō; Lat. tremō vs. a Gk. τρεω<*tre-sō, O.Ind. trásate, ‘he is frightened’.

Present Consonant Lengthenings

A. Thematic suffix -ske/o- is added to Roots in zero-grade, especially to monosyllabics and disyllabics; as, pṛk-skṓ (from prek42), cm-skṓ, (from cem82), gnṓ-skō (from gnō100). It can also be added to Reduplicated stems, as dí-dk-skō (from dek89), gí-gnō-skō, and to lengthened Roots, especially in ī, u, ē, ā, as krē-skō (from ker175).

Sometimes these Deverbatives show limited general patterns, creating especially Iteratives, but also Inchoatives, Causatives, and even Determinatives or Terminatives.

This lengthening in -sk- seems to have been part of Present-only stems in Late PIE; cf. Lat. flōrescō/flōruī, Gk. κικλησκω/κεκληκα, and so on.

NOTE 1. Cases like IE verb pṛkskṓ, ask, demand (cf. O.H.G. forscōn, Ger. forschen, Lat. poscō>por(c)scō, O.Ind. pṛcch, Arm. harc’anem, O.Ir. arcu), which appear throughout the whole conjugation in different IE dialects, are apparently exceptions of the Late Proto-Indo-European verbal system; supporting a common formation of zero-grade root Iterative presents, compare also the form (e)skó- (<h₁skó), the verb es- with ‘existencial’ sense, as O.Lat. escit, “is”, Gk. ẽske, “was”, Hom. Gk. éske, Pal. iška, etc.

NOTE 2. Supporting the theory that -sk has a newer development than other lengthenings is e.g. the Hittite formation duskiski(ta) (cf. O.Ind. túsyate, ‘silenter’, O.Ir. inna tuai ‘silentia’), which indicates that in Anatolian (hence possibly in IE III as well) such an ending – unlike the other endings shown - is still actively in formation.

B. Stems in -n are said to have a nasal suffix or a nasal infix – if added within the root. They may be Athematic or Thematic, and the most common forms are -n, -neu/-nu, -nā: as in stṛ-neu-mi/ster-nu-ō, spread; li-n-eq-mi/li-n-q-ō, leave; mḷ-n-ā-iō, soften; dhre-n-g-āiō, hold; pu-n-g-ō, prik; bhu-n-dh-ō, be aware, pla-n-tā-iō, plant; etc. These verbs can be found also without the nasal suffix or infix, viz. streu, leiq, mlā, dhreg, peug, plat.

There are other, not so common nasal formations; as, -ne/o, i.e. -[no] or -[n̥-o], and (possibly derived from inflected -neu and -nei ) the forms -nue/o, -nie/o. So for example in sper-nō, scatter, p(e)ḷ-nō, fill.

NOTE. These formations are very recent to Late Proto-Indo-European In Greek it is frequent the nasal suffix -an. Others as -nue/o, and -nie/o appear often, too; as Gk. phthínuo, Goth. winnan (from *wenwan); Gk. iaíno, phaínomai, (see bhā) and Old Indian verbs in -niati.

V. Present Vowel Stem

1. Some roots and derivatives (deverbatives or denominatives) form the Thematic verb stems with -ie/o, and Semithematics in –ī, usually added to the stem in consonant .

The preceding vowel may be an -ā-, -ē-, -i- or -u-, sometimes as part of the root or derivative, sometimes as part of the suffix. Possible suffixes in -io are then also (the so-called Verba Vocalia) -io, -ḗio, -íjo and -úio.

NOTE 1. Verbs in -io are usually classified as a different type of deverbatives (not included in verba vocalia); in these cases, the Root grade is usually Ø; as, bhudhiō, wake up, from bheudh-; but the full grade is also possible, as in spekiō, look.

NOTE 2. Deverbatives in -io give usually Statives, and sometimes Causatives and Iteratives, which survive mainly in the European dialects (but cf. Gk. ωθεω, O.Ind. vadhayati, etc), as the especial secondary formation Causative-Iterative, with o-grade Root and suffix -ie/o, cf. from wes-, dress, Active wosḗieti (cf. Hitt. waššizzi, Skr. vāsáiati, Ger. wazjan, Alb. vesh), from leuk-, light, Active loukḗieti (cf. Hitt. lukiizzi, Skr. rocáyati, Av. raočayeiti, O.Lat. lūmina lūcent), etc. There are also many deverbatives in -io without a general meaning when opposed to its basic verb.

NOTE 2. The Thematic inflection of these verbs is regular, and usually accompanied by the Semithematic in the Northern dialects, but not in the Southern ones, which don’t combine them with -i-, -ē-, nor -ā-.

2. Thematic root verbs in -io are old, but have coexisted with the semithematics -io/-i/-ī. These verbs may be deverbatives – normally Iteratives or Causatives – or Denominatives.

NOTE. They served especially to form verbs from nouns and adjectives, as wesnóm, price, and wesnēiṓ, value (cf. Skr. vasna-yá), nomṇ, name, nómṇiō, name (cf. Got. namnjan), or melit, honey, mḷitiō, take honey from the honeycomb (as Gk. blíttō), etc.

The deverbative inflection could have -io, -ḗio, or its semithematic variant.

NOTE 1. The State or Status value of these verbs is a feature mainly found in Balto-Slavic dialects, with verbs in -ē and -ā, whose inflection is sometimes combined with thematic -ie/o.

NOTE 2. About the usual distinction -éiō/-ḗiō, it is apparently attested in Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Greek and Armenian (cf. Arm. Gen. siroy, “love”, sirem, “I love” <*kejre-ié-); Greek loses the -j- and follows (as Latin) the rule ‘uocālis ante uocālem corripitur’, what helps metrics. However, Greek had probably a present with long ē (as in non-liquid future and perfect). Mycenaean doesn’t clarify the question; moreover, it is often accepted that forms like O.Ind. in -ayati are isolated. For pragmatic purposes, Modern Indo-European should follow always an ending -ēiō, which fits better into EIE reconstruction and Western poetry, which follows the Classical Greek and Latin metrics, as it is not so easy to include lubheieti (with three syllables) in the common classic hexameter... However, for modern dialectal purposes (i.e. to write in Hellenic, Aryan or Anatolian) it is probably safe to assume a common, old PIE dialectal (and very limited) trend to use -éio.

3. Stems in -u are rarely found in the Present, but are often found in the Preterite and Perfect stems.

NOTE. Stems in -u have, thus, an opposed behaviour to those in -i, which are usually found in Present and rarely in Preterite and Perfect.

In Present stems, -u is found in roots or as a suffix, whether thematic or athematic (but not semithematic), giving a stem that may normally appear as the general stem of the verb. It is therefore generally either part of the root or a stable lengthening of it.

NOTE. Common exceptions to this general rule concerning Late PIE verbs in -u, usually general stems, are different pairs gheu-ghō, pleu-plō, etc.

4. Root or stems in -ē, Athematic or mixed with -i-. Sometimes the -ē is part of the Root, sometimes it is a suffix added or substituting the -e of the Stem.

They may be verbs of State; as, albhēiō, be white, with a stative value. There are also Iterative-Causatives; Denominatives are usually derived from thematic adjectives in e/o.

NOTE. These are probably related with stems in -i (i.e., in -ēie/o) as in albhēiō, be white, monēiō, remind, advise, senēiō, be old.

Athematic examples are lubhēiō, be dear, be pleasing; rudhēiō, blush, redden; galēiō, call (not denominative).

5. Roots or stems in -ā, Athematic or mixed with -i-. They are spread throughout the general Verb system; as, bhā(iō), draw; dukā(iō), drag, draw; am(iō), love, etc.

NOTE. Some find apparently irregular formations as Lat. amō, “I love”, from an older am-iō, mixed with -i-; however, they are sometimes reconstructed (viz. Adrados) as from *amō, i.e. in -ā without ending (cf. Lat. amas, amat,...); against it, compare common IE formations as Umb. suboca , “invoke”, Russ. délaiu, and so on.

About their Meaning, they may be (specially in Latin) Statives or Duratives, and sometimes Factitives opposed to Statives in -ē (cf. Hitt. maršaḫ-marše-, Lat. clarāre-clarēre, albāre-albēre, nigrāre-nigrēre, liquāre-liquēre). But there are also many deverbatives in -ā without a special value opposed to the basic verb.

Stems in -ā help create Subjunctives, Aorists, and Imperfectives. The use of -ā to make Iterative and Stative deverbatives and denominatives is not so common as the use -ē.

NOTE. There is a relation with verbs in -i- (i.e. in - āio), as with stems in -ē.

7.4.3. The Aorist Stem

I. Aorist Stem Formation Paradigm

1. The Aorist describes a completed action in the past, at the moment when it is already finished, as e.g. Eng. I did send/had sent that e-mail before/when you appeared.

NOTE. As opposed to the Aorist, the Imperfect refers to a durative action in the past (either not finished at that moment or not finished yet), as e.g. Eng. I sent/was sending the e-mail when you appeared.

2. The Aorist is made usually in Ø/Ø, Secondary Endings, Augment and sometimes Reduplication; as, 1^st. P.Sg. (é)bheróm.

NOTE. Augment was obviously obligatory neither in Imperfect nor in Aorist formations in Late PIE (cf. Oldest Greek and Vedic Sanskrit forms), but it is usually shown in this grammar because tradition in IE studies has made Augment obligatory, and because a) the Aorist is mostly a litterary resource, b) only Greek and Sanskrit further specialized it, and c) these dialects made Augment obligatory. It is clear, however, that for a Modern Indo-European of Europe it would be better to select an ‘Augment’ (if we had to) in pro-, as common Celtic ro-, in kom-, as regular Germanic ga-, or in per- as frequently found in Latin, instead of the Graeco-Aryan in é-.

3. The opposition of Present and Preterite stems is made with:

a. Present Reduplicated Root vs. Aorist Basic Root; as, sí-stā-mi, I stand, vs. stā-m, I have stood.

b. Thematic Present vs. Athematic Aorist in -s; as, leiq-ō, I leave, lēiq-s-ṃ, I was leaving.

c. Both stems Thematic, but with different vowel degrees; as, leiq-ō, I leave, liq-óm, I have left.

NOTE. Every stem could usually be Present or Aorist in PIE, provided that they were opposed to each other. And there could be more than one Present and Aorist stem from the same Root; as, for Thematic Present leiq-ō, I leave, which shows two old formations, one Athematic extended lēiq-s-ṃ (the so-called sigmatic Aorist), and other Thematic zero-grade liq-óm.

4. There was a logical trend to specialize the roles of the different formations, so that those Stems which are rarely found in Present are usual in Aorists. For example, Thematic roots for the Present, and Aorists extended in (athematic) -s-.

NOTE. In fact, there was actually only one confusion problem when distinguishing stems in Proto-Indo-European, viz. when they ended in -ē or -ā, as they appeared in Presents and Aorists alike. It was through oppositions and formal specializations of individual pairs that they could be distinguished.

II. Aorist Root Stem

1. Athematic Aorist Root stems were generally opposed to Athematic Reduplicated Present stems, but it wasn’t the only possible opposition in PIE.

NOTE. Such athematic Root stems aren’t found with endings in consonant, though.

2. Monosyllabic Root Aorists are usually opposed to Presents:

a. In -neu; as, kluneuō, from kleu-, hear, or qṛneuō, from qer-, make, do; etc.

NOTE. For kluneu- cf. Buddh. Skr. śrun; Av. surunaoiti; Shughni çin; O.Ir. cluinethar; Toch. A and B käln. Skr. śRno-/śRnu- < kluneu-/klunu- shows a loss of u analogous to the loss of i in tRtī́ya- ‘third’ < IE tritijo-.

b. Reduplicated or in -sko, -io; as, camskṓ, from cem-, come, or bhesiō, from bhes-, breathe; etc.

c. Thematic Present; as, ghewō, from ghew-, pour; bhawō, from bhā-, proclaim.

3. Disyllabic Root Presents show a similar opposition pattern; as, gígnōskō-gnō, bhaliō-bhlē, etc.

The thematic vowel is the regular system in inflection, i.e. Present Sg. Active with full vowel, and Ø in the rest.

NOTE. It seems that Proto-Indo-European disyllabic roots tended to generalize a unique form, disregarding the opposition pattern; as, gnō-, bhlē-, etc.

4. Thematic Aorist stems are the same ones as those of the Present, i.e. full-grade and zero-grade, e.g. leiq- and liq-, always opposed to the Present:

a. The liqé/ó- form (i.e. zero-grade) is usually reserved for the Aorist stem;

b. The leiqe/o- form (i.e. full-grade) is rarely found in the Aorist – but, when it is found, the Present has to be logically differentiated from it; e.g. from the Imperfect with Augment, viz. from bhértus, to carry, Pres. bhéreti/bherti, he carries, Imperf. bherét/bhert, he was carrying, Aorist ébheret/ébhert, he carried.

III. Aorist Reduplicated Stem

1. Aorist Reduplicated stems – thematic and athematic – are found mainly in Greek and Indo-Iranian, but also sporadically in Latin.

NOTE. Southern dialects have also (as in the Present) a specialized vowel for Reduplicated Aorists, v.i., but in this case it is unique to them, as the other dialects attested apparently followed different schemes. In Modern Indo-European the attested dialectal schemes are followed.

2. Aorist Thematic Reduplicates have a general vowel e (opposed to the i of the Present), zero-grade root vowel (general in Aorists), and sometimes also accent before the ending; as, chechnō, I killed, from chen-.

In roots which begin with vowel, reduplication is of the type vowel+consonant.

NOTE. This resource for the Aorist formation seems not to have spread successfully outside Graeco-Aryan dialects; however, the opposition of Present Reduplication in i, Preterite Reduplication in e (cf. Perfect Stem) was indeed generalized in Late Proto-Indo-European.

3. Some roots which begin with vowel form also Reduplicated Aorists; as ágagom (as Gk. ηγαγον, where η<ā<é+a – Wackernagel, hence *é-agagom)

4. Also, Causatives form frequently Reduplicated Aorists, cf. Lat. momorit, totondit, spopondit, etc., or O.Ind. atitaram, ajijanam, etc.

IV. Aorist Consonant Stem

1. As we have seen, Present Thematic stems in -s- are often Desideratives (also used as immediate Futures). The same stems serve as Aorists with secondary endings, usually reserved for the Aorist, generally called the Sigmatic Aorist (from Gk. σίγμα, “sigma”, i.e. Σ, σ or ς).

NOTE. Forms in -so are often found in Slavic; as, vedu-veso, reco-reso, etc.

2. The -s- is added:

a. to a Consonant ending and lengthened root vowel, in contrast with the Present in full vowel.

b. to a vowel ā, ē, ō, with the same stem as the Present, or to the noun from which the verb is derived. Those in ē and ā must have Ø root grade.

There is also a second Aorist mark: an -e- before the -s- (possibly an older Aorist mark, to which another mark was added); as, alkō, alkesṓ, grow, from al-; mńiō, mnesṓ, be mad, from men-; etc.

NOTE. Thematic Aorist stems are mostly used as Presents in Indo-Iranian, Greek, Slavic, and Latin (cf. Lat. dīxī).

3. Athematic stems in -s- are widespread in Late PIE. They were formerly added to the Root, whether monosyllabic or disyllabic, in consonant or vowel, opposed thus to the Present.

Monosyllabic or Disyllabic Aorist root stems in i, u, ā, ē, ō, have a fixed vowel grade (like most Athematic Root Aorists); e.g. the 3^rdP.Pl. plēnt, from redupl. pí(m)plēmi, fill (i.e. in zero-/full-grade), or 3^rdP.Pl. pewisṇt from pōnāmi, purify (i.e. in full-/zero-grade).

The most frequent Aorist stems in PIE were monosyllabic roots ending in consonant or sonant.

NOTE 1. They usually have in Graeco-Aryan lengthened root vowel in the active voice, and zero-grade in the rest; as, leiq-, leave, from which liq- & lēiq-s-ṃ; so too from qer-, make, giving qēr-s-ō; or from bher-, carry, bhēr-s-ō, etc. Such lengthened vocalism in sigmatic aorists is probably an innovation in Late PIE.

NOTE 2. Aorists in -s- are then a modern feature of Late PIE, found in all its dialects (as Imperfects or Perfects in European dialects), but for Germanic and Baltic, possibly the dialects spoken far away from the core of the remaining Europe’s Indo-European dialect continuum, in close contact with other Late PIE dialects after the first migrations. Aorist stem formation in -i-, -ē-, -ā- are still more recent, appearing only in some proto-languages.

4. Some other common dialectal formations in -s-:

a. in -is (Latin and Indo-Aryan), -es (Greek); as, genis- from gen, beget; wersis- from wers-, rain; also, cf. Lat. amauis (amāuistī, and amāuerām<-uisām), etc.

b. in -sā, attested in Latin, Tocharian and Armenian.

c. in -sē, -sie/o, etc.

5. Stems in -t- function usually as Aorists opposed to Present stems, especially in Latin, Italic, Celtic and Germanic.

NOTE. While the use of -t for persons in the verbal conjugation is certainly old, the use of an extension in -t- to form verbal Stems seems to be more recent, and mainly developed in Europe’s Indo-European.

6. Stems in -k- are rare, but there are examples of them in all forms of the verb, including Aorists.

V. Aorist Vowel Stem

1. Aorists in ā, ē, are very common, either as pure stems with Athematic inflection, or mixed with other endings, as e.g. -u-.

NOTE. Stems extended in -u- are rarely found in Present stems, but are frequent in Preterites, and the contrary has to be said of stems in -i-. For more on this formations, vide supra the Present Vowel Stem section.

When opposed to a Present, stems extended in -ā, -ē, are often Aorists.

2. A common pattern in the opposition Present Stem vs. Aorist Vowel Stem is:

A. Present in -i- (thematic or semithematic) vs. Aorist in -ē, -ā; as, mńiō-mṇēiō, be mad, alkiō-alkāiō, be hungry.

B. Present Thematic (in -e/o) vs. Aorist in -ē, -ā; as, legō-legēiō, collect, speak, gntō-gntāuō, know.

3. The use of stems in -u- is usually related to the Past and sometimes to the Perfect. Such endings may appear as -u, - āu, - ēu, -ēuē, - āuā, -ēuā, - āuē.

4. Stems in -i/-ī are scarcely used for Aorists, cf. awisdhíjō-awisdhíuī, hear, Lat. audĭo, audĭui.

Aorist stems are often lengthened in -e- or -i-, to avoid the loss of consonants when extended in -s-.

7.4.4. The Perfect Stem

The Perfect stem (opposed to the Present) has  or lengthened root vowel and special Perfect endings, Sg. -a, -ta, -e; 3^rd Pl. -r. In Gk. and Ind.-Ira., the stem was often reduplicated, generally with vowel e.

NOTE. Originally the Perfect was probably a different Stative verb, which eventually entered the verbal conjugation, meaning the state derived from the action. PIE Perfect did not have a Tense or Voice value; it was opposed to the Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) and became Present, and to the Middle Perfect and became Active.

I. Root vowel is usually /Ø; as, (Pres. 1^stP.Sg., Perf. 1^stP.Sg., Perf.1^stP.Pl), gígnō-mi, gégon-a, gegn-mé, know; bhindh-ō, bhondh-a, bhṇdh-mé, bind; bheudh-ō, bhoudh-a, bhudh-mé, bid;

But for different formations, cf. kan-ō, (ké)kan-a, kṇ-mé, sing; (for subgroups of conjugations, v.s.)

NOTE 1. Compare O.Ir. cechan, cechan, cechuin (and cechain), cechnammar, cechn(u)id, cechnatar. For examples of root vowel ā, cf. Lat. scābī, or Gk. τεθηλα, and for examples with root vowel a, cf. Umb. procanurent (with ablaut in Lat. procinuerint) – this example has lost reduplication as Italic dialects usually do after a preposed preposition (cf. Lat. compulī, detinuī), although this may not be the case (cf. Lat. concinuī).

NOTE 2. There are also (dialectal) Perfects with lengthened Root vowel; as, from Latin sedē-iō, sēd-a, sit; ed-ō, ēd-a, eat; cem-iō, cēm-a, come; ag-ō, āg-a, act; from Germanic, sleb-ō, séslēb-a, sleep; etc.

II. The Endings of the Perfect are -a, -ta, -e, for the singular, and -mé, -(t)é, -(ē)r, for the plural.

III. Reduplication is made in e, and also sometimes in -i and -u.

NOTE. Apparently, Indo-Iranian and Greek dialects made reduplication obligatory, whereas European dialects didn’t. Thus, as a general rule, verbs are regularly reduplicated in Modern Indo-European if the Present Stem is a reduplicate; as, Present bhi-bher-, Perfect bhe-bhor-, etc. Such a general rule is indeed subjected to natural exceptions; cf. Gk. εγνοκα, Lat. sēuī (which seems old, even with Goth. saiso), etc. Also, cf. Lat. sedī, from sedeō and sīdo, which don’t let us reconstruct when is from PIE sesdai, and when from sēdai.

7.4.5. The Future Stem

1. Future stems were frequently built with a Thematic -s- ending, although not all Indo-European dialects show the same formations.

NOTE. The Future comes probably from Late PIE Desiderative-Causative Present stems, usually formed with extensions in -s- (and its variants), which probably became with time a regular part of the verbal conjugation in some dialects, whilst disappearing in others. In fact, whether using this formation or not, all Indo-European languages tended to differentiate the Present from the Future Tense. Usual resources found in Indo-European languages to refer to the future are 1) the Present as Immediate Future, 2) the Present Subjunctive or Aorist with prospective value, 3) different Desiderative formations in Present, and 4) Verbal Periphrasis.

Future stems were usually made in Proto-Indo-European dialects:

a. With a simple Athematic -s, or with extended Thematic -so, -sio, or -seio.

b. With root vowel e, i.e. in full-grade.

c. With or without reduplication.

NOTE. Compare, for a common origin of the future in -s-, Sanskrit (and Baltic) futures in -sia (cf. Skr. da-syā-mi, Lith. dou-siu, “I will give”), Doric Greek in -seo, -sio, Classical Greek and Archaic Latin in -so (cf. O.Lat. faxō, dhak-sō, “I will make”, O.Lat. peccas-sō, from peccāre, Lat. erō, “I will be”, from esō, from IE es-, be, etc.), and Old Irish common Desideratives in -s. Also, some more dialectal additions are found appearing before the -s- edings; as, -i-s- in Indo-Iranian and Latin, -e-s- in Greek and Osco-Umbrian.

2. In Modern Indo-European, the Future is regularly made by adding a Thematic -so, -sio (or even -seio), following if possible the attested common vocabulary.

NOTE. The Future stem in -s is found neither in Germanic and Slavic dialects, nor in Classic Latin, which developed diverse compound futures. However, Indo-Iranian, Greek and Baltic show almost the same Future stems (along with similar formations in Archaic Latin, Oso-Umbrian and Old Celtic dialects), what means that the Future stem had probably a common (but unstable) pattern already developed before the first migrations; apparently, Germanic and Slavic dialects, as well as the systematized Classic Latin, didn’t follow it or later substituted it with their own innovative formations. We use it in Modern Indo-European, though, because a regular Future formation is needed.

For Germanic future compounds, compare general Germanic from wertō, PGmc. werþō, “become, turn into” (cf. Goth. wairþan, O.S., O.Du. werthan, O.N. verða, O.E. weorðan, O.Fris. wertha, O.H.G. werdan, Eng. worth, Ger. werden), from PIE wer-, turn. Also, sk(e)lō, Gmc. skulō, “owe, must” (cf. Goth. skulan, O.S. sculan, O.N., Swed. skola, O.H.G. solan, M.Du. sullen, Eng. shall, Ger. sollen), with a dialectal meaning shift from ‘obligation’ to ‘probable future’, related to O.E. scyld “guilt”, Ger. Schuld, also in O.N. Skuld; cf. O.Prus. skallisnan, Lith. skeleti “be guilty”, skilti, “get into debt”. Also, for Eng. “will”, from Gmc. welljan, “wish, desire”, compare derivatives from PIE wel-.

In Osco-Umbrian and Classic Latin, similar forms are found that reveal the use of compounds with the verb bheu-130, be, exist, used as an auxiliary verb with Potential-Prospective value (maybe a common Proto-Italic resource), later entering the verbal conjugation as a desinence; compare Osc.,Umb. -fo-, (cf. Osc.,Umb. carefo, pipafo), or Lat. -bo-, -be- (cf. Lat. ama-bo, from earlier *ami bhéwō, or lauda-bo, from *laudi bhewō).

The common Slavic formation comes also from PIE bheu-, be, exist, grow, with extended bhūtiō, come to be, become, found in BSl. byt- (cf. O.C.S. бъіти, Russ. быть, Cz. býti, Pol. być, Sr.-Cr. bíti, etc.), and also in Lith. bū́ti, O.Ind. bhūtíṣ, and Cel. but- (O.Ir buith). Also, with similar meanings and forms, compare Gmc. biju, “be”, (cf. Eng. be, Ger. bin), or Lat. fui, “was”, also in zero-grade bhutús, “that is to be”, and bhutū́sos, future, as Lat. futūrus, or Gk. φύομαι; from the same root cf. Goth. bauan, O.H.G. buan, “live”.

3. Conditional sentences might be built in some Proto-Indo-European dialects using common Indicative and Subjunctive formations. In Modern Indo-European, either such archaic syntax is imitated, or an innovative formation is used, viz. the Future Stem with Secondary Endings.

NOTE. Modern IE languages show a newer possibility for conditional inflection: using a past form of the Future stem”, using the Future Stem with secondary endings, thus applying this modern (future) formation to the common Late PIE verbal system of Secondary Endings. However, conditional sentences might also be made with the available Late PIE verbal conjugation, using periphrasis with Indicative and Subjunctive (as Classic Latin), or with the Subjunctive and Optative (as Classical Greek), etc. Whether MIE speakers prefer to use the modern European Conditional Inflection or different periphrasis of PIE indicatives, subjunctives and optatives, is a practical matter outside the scope of this grammar.

In Sanskrit, the Conditional was built using the Future Stem with Secondary Endings; as, Skr. daa-sya-ti, “he will give”, vs. daa-sya-t, “he would give”, from IE dō-, or Skr. abhavi-sya-mi, “I will be”, abhavi-sya-m, “I would be”, from IE bheu-.

In Ancient Greek, the Optative is found as modal marker in the antecedent, which defines the conditional sense of the sentence; cf. εἰ πράσσοι τοῦτο καλῶς ἄν ἔχοι, “if he were to do that, it would turn out well”.

In Germanic dialects, the conditional is usually made with a verbal periphrasis, consisting of the modal (future) auxiliary verb in the past, i.e. would (or should, also could, might), and the infinitive form of the main verb, as in I will come, but I would come; compare also Ger. (fut.) Ich werde kommen, (cond.) Ich würde kommen.

While Latin used the indicative and subjunctive in conditional sentences, Romance languages developed a conditional inflection, made by the imperfect of Lat. habēre, cf. V.Lat. (fut.) uenire habeo, “I have to come”, V.Lat. (cond.) uenire habēbam, “I had to come”, as in Fr. (fut.) je viendr-ai, (cond.) je viendr-ais, Spa. (fut.) yo vendr-é, (cond.) yo vendr-ía, etc., cf. also the Portuguese still separable forms, as e.g. Pt. fazê-lo-ia instead of “o fazería”. Modern Italian has substituted it by another similar ending, from the perfect of Lat. habēre.

Full conditional sentences contain two clauses: the Protasis or condition, and the Apodosis or result, although this is a matter studied in detail by Indo-European Syntax.

7.4.6.Other Formations

Middle Perfect and Past Perfect

a. It was a common resource already in Proto-Indo-European to oppose a new Perfect formation to the old one, so that the old became only Active and the newer Middle. Such formations were generalized in the southern dialects, but didn’t succeed in the northern ones.

The new Perfect Middle stem was generally obtained with the Perfect stem in zero-grade and middle endings.

b. The Past Perfect or Pluperfect was also a common development of some dialects, opposing the new Perfect with secondary endings to the old Perfect, which became then a Present Perfect.

The Compound Past

A special Past or Preterite is found in IE dialects of Europe (i.e., the northwestern dialects and Greek), sometimes called Future Past, which is formed by two elements: a verbal stem followed by a vowel (-ā, -ē, -ī, -ō), and an auxiliary verb, with the meanings be (es-), become (bheu-), do (dhē-), or give (dō-).

NOTE. Although each language shows different formations, they all share a common pattern and therefore have a common origin traceable to Late PIE, unstable at first and later systematized in the individual proto-languages.

The Compound Past may be studied dividing the formation in three main parts: the forms of the first and second elements and the sense of the compound.

1. The First Element may be

a. A Pure Root.

b. Past Stem with the same lengthening as the rest of the verb.

c. Past Stem lengthened, but alternating with the Present stem, i.e. normally Present zero-grade vs. Past in full-grade.

d. Past Stem lengthened vs. Thematic Present (and Aorist).

NOTE. Originally, then, Compound Pasts are derived from a root or a stem with vowel ending, either the Present or the Aorist Stem. They are, then, Pasts similar to the others (i.e. Imperfects and Aorists), but instead of receiving secondary endings, they receive a secondary stem (like the Perfect).

2. The second element is an auxiliary verb; as, dhē- in Greek and Germanic, bheu- in Latin and Celtic, and dō- in Balto-Slavic.

3. Their specifical Past meaning could vary according to the needs of the individual dialects.

7.5. Mood Stems

7.5.1. Indicative

The Indicative expresses the Real Action, in contrast to the other moods, which were specialized in opposition to the basic Indicative mood. It appears in the Four verbal Stems.

7.5.2. Imperative

The Imperative had probably in IE II the same basic stem of the Indicative, and was used without ending, in a simple Expressive-Impressive function, of Exclamation or Order. They were the equivalent in verbal inflection to the vocative in nominal declension.

Some Late PIE dialects derived from this older scheme another, more complex Imperative system, with person, tense and even voice.

NOTE. In Late PIE, only the person distinctions appear to have been generalized, and we have included only these known common forms in this MIE grammar.

It is also old, beside the use of the pure stem, the use of the Injunctive for the Imperative in the second person plural; as, bhere!, carry! (thou), bhérete!, carry! (you).

The Injunctive is defined as the Basic Verb, with Secondary Endings, without Augment. It indicated therefore neither the present nor the past, thus easily indicating Intention. It is this form which was generally used as the Imperative.

1. The Basic Stem for the Imperative 2^ndP. Sg. is thus general;

2. The Injunctive forms the 2^ndP. Pl.; and

3. the 3^rdP. Sg. and the 3^rdP. Pl. show a special ending -tōd.

NOTE. An ending -u, usually *-tu, is also reconstructed (Beekes); the inclusion of that ending within the verbal system is, however, difficult. A common IE ending -tōd, on the other hand, may obviously be explained as the introduction into the verbal conjugation of a secondary Ablative form of the neuter pronoun to, this, a logical addition to an Imperative formation, with the sense of ‘here’, hence ‘now’, just as the addition of -i, ‘here and now’ to oppose new endings to the older desinences. They were specialized in some dialects as Future Imperatives.

The Imperative in Modern Indo-European is made with the Present Stem and Secondary Endings, and is thus generally divided into two main formations:

a. The old, athematic Imperatives; as in i!, go!, from eí; or es!, be!; etc.

NOTE 1. In Root Athematic verbs, plural forms show -Ø vowel and accent on the ending; as, s-éntōd!, be they!

NOTE 2. Some scholars reconstruct for the 2^ndP. Sg. Athematic, along with the general zero-ending, a common -dhí ending, which seems to be very old too.

b. Thematic Imperatives; as bhere!, carry!, or age!, do!, act!, etc.

Imperat.		Athem.	Them.
sg.	2.	-Ø, (-*dhí*)	-e
	3.	-tōd	-etōd
pl.	2.	-te	-*ete*
	3.	-ṇtōd	-*ont*ōd

7.5.3. Subjunctive

1. The Subjunctive is normally Athematic, usually in -ā, -ē and sometimes -ō, and always opposed to the Indicative. There are also Subjunctives in -s, probably newer than those in -ē, -ā.

NOTE. No subjunctive is found in BSl., which could mean that it was an innovation of Late PIE.

2. The Subjunctive Stem is made opposing it to the Indicative Stem, usually following these rules:

a. Indicative Athematic vs. Subjunctive Thematic; as, Ind. esmi, I am, Sub. esō, (if) I be.

b. Indicative Thematic vs. Subjunctive with Lengthened Thematic Vowel (not root vowel!); as, Ind. bhéresi, you carry, Sub. bherēs, you may carry, (if) you carried.

3. In Thematic Verbs the Subjunctive is made from the Present Stem, but in Athematic Verbs it is usually made from the Basic Stem; as, from jeug-, join, 1^st P.Pres. jungō, Subj. jungōm; from kleu-, hear, 1^st P.Pres. kluneumi, Subj. klewōm, not ~~klunéu~~ōm.

7.5.4. Optative

1. The Optative mood is a volitive mood that signals wishing or hoping, as in English I wish I might, or I wish you could, etc.

1) The Athematic Optative has an alternating suffix -iē (-ije after long syllable), usually in the singular, and zero-grade -ī, usually in the plural.

2) The Thematic Optative has a regular -oi. (probably the thematic -o- plus the reduced Opt. -i)

NOTE. Only Albanian, Avestan, Ancient Greek, Sanskrit, and to some extent Old Church Slavonic kept the subjunctive and optative fully separate and parallel. In Sanskrit it is only found in the earliest Vedic language, and the optative and imperative are in comparison less commonly used.

2. The Optative is built with Secondary Endings, and usually with zero-grade root vowel.

3. The Present Optative formations have usually root accent, while the rest show accent on the Optative suffix.

7.6. The Voice

7.6.1. Active Voice

1. The characteristic Primary Endings are -mi, -si, -ti, 3^rd Pl. -nti, while the Secondary don’t have the final -i, i.e. -m, -s, -t, 3^rd Pl. -nt.

NOTE. The secondary endings are believed to be older, being originally the only verbal endings available. With the addition of a deictic -i, which possibly indicated originally “here and now”, the older endings became secondary, and the newer formations became the primary endings.

Compare a similar evolution in Romance languages from Lat. habere, giving common Fr. il y a, “there (it) is”, or Cat. i ha, “there is”, while the Spanish language has lost the relationship with such older Lat. i, “there”, viz. Spa. hay, “there is” (from O.Spa. ha+i), already integrated within the regular verbal conjugation of the verb haber.

2. These Desinences are used for all verbs, whether Athematic or Thematic; as, esti, he is, or bhéreti, he carries. However, in the 1^stP. Sg., most Late PIE Thematics end in -ō; as, bherō.

NOTE. These endings in -ō are probably remains of the older situation, in which no ending was necessary to mark the 1st P.Sg. (that of the speaker), and therefore, even though a desinence -m became general with time, the older formations prevailed, in some cases even along with the newer Thematic -o-mi.

Active		Athematic		Thematic
		Primary	Secondary	Primary	Secondary
sg.	1.	-mi	-m	-ō, -*omi*	-om
	2.	-si	-s	-*esi*	-es
	3.	-ti	-t	-*eti*	-et
pl.	1.	-*mes, -mos*	-me, -mo	-*omes, -omos*	-*ome, -omo*
	2.	-te		-*ete*
	3.	-ṇti	-ṇt	-*onti*	-*ont*

NOTE. The forms of the first person plural are not easily reconstructed (as every Indo-European dialect has developed its own endings) but they were usually formed with -me-/-mo- + Ø/Consonant (-s, -n or -r).

7.6.2. Middle Voice

1. The Middle Endings are generally those of the Active voice with a characteristic Middle voice -o (sometimes -e), in which the Primary Endings have an additional -i.

Middle		Primary	Secondary
sg.	1.	-(m)ai	-(m)a
	2.	-*soi*	-so
	3.	-*toi*	-to
pl.	1.	-*mesdha*	-*medha*
	2.	-*dhe*	-*dhue*
	3.	-*ntoi*	-*nto*

2. In the Moods, the endings attested in PIE are usually the same, but there were some exceptions; as,

- Indicative Middle -a- vs. Subjunctive Middle -ā,

- Subjunctive 1^stP.Sg. -ai (and not -ma).

7.6.3. Passive Voice

1. The Passive voice didn’t exist in the attested Proto-Indo-European language; it seems nevertheless useful to develop a common modern Indo-European grammatical formation, based on old PIE endings.

2. The -r ending was usual in the Middle formations of some early Indo-European dialects, and it had also a specific impersonal value. The -r has therefore two uses in Indo-European:

a. The -r After the Stem had usually in PIE an impersonal value, and it was also found lengthened as -ro, -roi, -renti, -ronti, -rontoi, etc.

NOTE. The -r was used in the 3^rd P. Sg. & Pl., and it was extended in -nt- when necessary to distinguish the plural, giving initially the impersonal forms e.g. 3^rd P.Sg. déiketor, “it is shown”, and 3^rd P.Pl. déikontor, “they are shown”, with the impersonal ending -r which was later generalized in some dialects, spreading as Mediopassives in Hittite, Italic, Celtic, Latin and Tocharian. also, when a Middle form was needed, a Middle ending -o was added. The primary marker -i was used apparently with the same aim.

b. The -r After the Ending was usual in forms related to the so-called PIE Mediopassive Voice, attested in Latin, Osco-Umbrian, Celtic and Tocharian, as well as in Germanic, Indo-Iranian and Anatolian dialects. In Celtic, Osco-Umbrian and Latin, they replaced the Middle Primary Endings, and acquired a Passive value.

NOTE 1. The oldest traceable meaning of the endings in -r in Proto-Indo-European, taking the Anatolian examples, show apparently the same common origin: either an impersonal subject or, at least, a subject separated from the action, which is a meaning very closely related to the later dialectally specialized use of a Passive Voice.

NOTE 2. There are no distinctions of Primary-Secondary Passive Endings, as the Secondary formations are the same oldest Medioppasive -o Endings. The newer -i (Middle) and -r (Impersonal) endings were added later and spread on a dialect-to-dialect basis, some of them using and/or mixing both of them, all specializing its use.

Passive		Athematic	Thematic
sg.	1.	-*mar*	-ar, -*omar*
	2.	-*sor*	-*esor*
	3.	-*tor*	-*etor*
pl.	1.	-*mosṛ/-mor*	-*omosṛ/-omor*
	2.	-*dhuer*	-*edhuer*
	3.	-ṇ*tor*	-*ontor*

7.7. Noun and Adjective Forms

7.7.1. Infinitives

1. The Infinitives are indeclinable nouns with non-personal verbal functions, which can be in some dialects as many as inflection, voice, aspect and even time.

NOTE. Infinitives are, thus, old nouns reinterpreted as forming part of the verbal conjugation.

2. The older Infinitives are the Verbal Nouns, casual forms inflected as nouns, sometimes included in the verbal inflection. A Verbal Noun is a declinable substantive, derived from the root of a verb.

NOTE. The difference in the syntax is important; the verbal noun is constructed as a substantive, thus - for example - with the object in the genitive; as, wīrī chenom, the killing of a man, opposed to an infinitive with an accusative; as, chentus wīrom, to kill (Nom.) a man, v.i.

3. Verbal Nouns were, thus, the normal way to express the idea of a modern Infinitive in the oldest PIE. They were usually formed with the verbal stem and a nominal suffix if Athematic, and is usually formed in MIE with the verbal stem plus neuter -om if Thematic; as, bher-om, carrying.

NOTE. Some IE dialects chose later between limited noun-cases of those verbal nouns for the Infinitive formation, generally Acc., Loc., Abl.; compare Lat. -os (sibilant neuter), Gmc. -on-om (thematic neuter), etc.

4. In Late PIE, two general infinitive suffixes were used, -tu- and -ti-. Such formations convey the same meaning as the English infinitive; as, bhertus, carrying.

NOTE. For generalized IE infinitive -tu-, cf. Lat. (active & passive supine) -tum (acc.) -tū (dat.-loc.) -tui (dat.), Gk. -tós (<*-tewos), Skr. -tus, -tum (acc.), Av. -tos (gen.), -tave, -tavai (dat.), -tum, Prus. -twei (dat.) -tun, -ton (acc.), O.Sla. -tŭ (supine), Lith. -tų, etc.; for -ti-, cf. Ved. -taye (dat), BSl., Cel. -ti (loc.), Lith. -tie (dat.), etc.; also, in -m-en-, cf. Skr. -mane, O.Gk. -men(ai), etc. Also, a common ending -dhuāi/-dhiāi (Haudry) added to the Basic Verbal Stem (possibly originally related to the forms -tu-, -ti-) is the basic form behind Ved. -dhyai, Gk. Middle -σθαι, Umb. -fi, Toch. -tsi, as well as Latin gerunds and the for Germanic reconstructed *-dhiōi. Other forms include -u-, -er/n-, -(e)s-, extended -s-, -u-, -m-, also Gmc. -no- (as Goth. ita-n<*edo-no-), Arm. -lo-, etc.

7.7.2. Participles

1. The Participles are adjectives which have been assimilated to the verbal system, having thus verbal inflection.

NOTE. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European shows an intense reliance on participles, and thus a certain number of participles played a very important role in the language.

2. Those in -nt are the older ones, and are limited to the Active voice and to the Present, Imperfect and Future; as, bherónts/bherénts, who carries.

3. The Perfect active has a suffix -ués, -ués (Ø-grade -us), or -uét, -uót; as, widuóts, widuós, eduós, etc.

NOTE. Both the Present and Perfect participles are indeed inflected following the second declension; as, Nom. -nts, -uos, Acc. -ntṃ, -uosṃ, Gen. -ntos, -usos, Nom. pl. -ntes, -uoses, etc.

4. The Middle Participles have a common suffix -meno-/-mēno-/-mṇo- (originally probably adjectival) as; alomṇós79, “who feeds himself”, student, (as Lat. alumnus, from al-⁷⁹), dhēmṇ, “who suckles”, woman, (as Lat. femina, from dhēi-120).

5. The Participles have been also developed as Passives in some languages, and are also used in static passive formations in Modern Indo-European. They are usually formed with the Basic or Preterite Stem with the following suffixes:

a. -tó-; as, altós, grown; dhetós, placed; kaptós, taken; etc.

NOTE. The adjectives in -to imply reference to a Noun. They had usually zero-grade root vowel; as liqtós, left, pigtós, painted, and so on.

b. -nó- and its variants; as, bheidhnós, parted, bitten; wṛgnós, worked; delānós, made.

NOTE. Compare with adjectives in -n, as in pl(e)nós (cf. Goth. fulls, Eng. full, Lat. plenus), from pel.

c. -mó-; as, pṛwimós, foremost, first (cf. Toch. parwät/parwe, Lith. pirmas, O.C.S. pĭrvŭ, etc.).

NOTE. Latin prīmus is usually reconstructed as from preismós (cf. Paelignian prsmū) or maybe pristmós, in any case (as the rest of IE words for ‘first’) from PIE per-; for its derivation from pṛwimós, see Adrados.

d. -ló-; see next section.

NOTE. All these Passive participles follow the first-type adjective declension, i.e. -os, -ā, -om.

7.7.3. Gerundives and Absolutives

1. Verbal Adjectives are not assimilated to the verbal system of Tense and Voice. Those which indicate need or possibility are called Gerundives.

NOTE. Verbal Adjectives and Adjectives (as Verbal Nouns and Nouns) cannot be easily differentiated.

2. Whereas the same Passive Participle suffixes are found, i.e. -tó-, -nó-, -mó-, there are two forms especially identified with the Gerundives in Late PIE dialects:

a. -ló- and -lí- are found in Latin, Balto-Slavic, Tocharian and Armenian; as, ṇbherelós, unbearable, ghabhilís, able (as Lat. habilis), etc.

NOTE. For suffix -lo- as originally a participle suffix, cf. Russ. videlŭ, Lat. credulus, bibulus, tremulus, etc.

b. -ió- (a common lengthening to differentiate adjectives) is sometimes a gerundive of obligation, as well as -tu-, -ti-, -ndho-, etc.; as, dhṛsiós, visible; gnotinós, that has to be known; seqondhós, second, that has to follow; gnaskendhós, that has to be born; and so on.

c. -món, with a general meaning of ‘able’; as, mnāmṓn, mindful.

NOTE. For the “Internal Derivation” (after the German and Austrian schools) of this PIE suffix -mn > -mon, cf. Gk. mnẽma >mń-mṇ, “reminder”, PIE mnāmṇ, into Gk. mnḗmon > mnā-món, “who remembers”; compare also Skr. bráhman, “prayer”, Skr. brahmán, “brahman”, etc.

3. The adverbial, not inflected Verbal Adjectives are called Absolutives or Gerunds. They were usually derived from the older Gerundives.

NOTE. Speakers of Modern Indo-European have to use verbal periphrasis or other resources to express the idea of a modern Gerund, as there is no common reconstructible PIE gerund. As the Verbal Nouns for the Infinitives, the Verbal Adjectives or Gerundives might be a good starting point to translate a modern IE Gerund.

A common Future (or Obligation) Passive Absolutive ending, -téu(ij)os, (cf. Gk. -τεος, O.Ind. -tavya, O.Ir. -the, etc.), may also be used in MIE; as, legtéu(ij)os, which has to be said, read or gathered.

Because of its Passive use, it may be used only with transitive verbs.

7.8. Conjugated Examples

7.8.1. Thematic Verbs

I. Present Stem

loutus[176], to wash

PRESENT STEM low-o-

ACTIVE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
sg.	lowō	lowōm	lowoim	-
	lówesi	lowēs	lowois	lowe
	lóweti	lowēt	lowoit	lówetōd
pl.	lówomes	lówōme	lówoime	-
	lówete	lówēte	lówoite	lówete
	lówonti	lowōnt	lowoint	lówontōd

MIDDLE-PASSIVE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	PASSIVE*
sg.	lowai	low	lowoia	*lowar*
	lówesoi	lowḗso	lówoiso	*lówesor*
	lówetoi	lowḗto	lówoito	*lówetor*
pl.	lówomesdha	lowṓmedhā	lówoimedha	*lówomor***
	lówedhe	lowḗdhue	lówoidhue	*lówedhuer***
	lówontoi	lowṓnto	lówojṇto	*lówontor***

IMPERFECT

	ACTIVE	MIDDLE	PASSIVE*
sg.	lowóm	lowá	*lowár*
	lowés	loweso	*lowesor*
	lowét	loweto	*lowetor*
pl.	lowome	lowómedha	*lowomor***
	lowete	lowedhue	*lowedhuer***
	lowónt	lowonto	*lowontor***

deiktus, to show

PRESENT STEM deik-o-

ACTIVE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
sg.	deikō	deikōm	deikoim	-
	déikesi	deikēs	deikois	deike
	déiketi	deikēt	deikoit	déiketōd
pl.	déikomes	déikōme	déikoime	-
	déikete	déikēte	déikoite	déikete
	déikonti	deikōnt	déikoint	déikontōd

MIDDLE-PASSIVE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	PASSIVE*
sg.	deikai	deikā	deikoia	*deikar*
	déikesoi	déikēso	déikoiso	*déikesor*
	déiketoi	déikēto	déikoito	*déiketor*
pl.	déikomesdha	déikōmedhā	déikoimedha	*déikomor***
	déikedhe	déikēdhue	déikoidhue	*déikedhuer***
	déikontoi	déikōnto	déikojnto	*déikontor***

IMPERFECT

	ACTIVE	MIDDLE	PASSIVE*
sg.	deikóm	deiká	*deikár*
	deikés	deikeso	*deikesor*
	deikét	deiketo	*deiketor*
pl.	deikome	deikómedha	*deikomor***
	deikete	deikedhue	*deikedhuer***
	deikónt	deikonto	*deikontor***

weistus, to know, see

PRESENT STEM w(e)id-ḗ-io- (Verba Vocalia)

ACTIVE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
sg.	weidēiō	weidēiōm	weidēioim	-
	weidḗiesi	weidēiēs	weidēiois	weidēie
	weidḗieti	weidēiēt	weidēioit	weidḗietōd
pl.	weidḗiomes	weidḗiōme	weidḗioime	-
	weidḗiete	weidḗiēte	weidḗioite	weidḗiete
	weidḗionti	weidēiōnt	weidēioint	weidḗiontōd

MIDDLE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	PASSIVE*
sg.	weidēiai	weidēiā	weidḗioia	*weidēiar*
	weidḗiesoi	weidḗiēso	weidḗioiso	*weidḗiesor*
	weidḗietoi	weidḗiēto	weidḗioito	*weidḗietor*
pl.	weidḗiomesdha	weidḗiōmedhā	weidḗioimedha	*weid*ḗiomor
	weidḗiedhe	weidḗiēdhue	weidḗioidhue	*weid*ḗiedhuer
	weidḗiontoi	weidḗiōnto	weidḗiojnto	*weid*ḗiontor

IMPERFECT

	ACTIVE	MIDDLE	PASSIVE*
sg.	weidēióm	weidēiá	*weidēiár*
	weidēiés	weidēieso	*weidēiesor*
	weidēiét	weidēieto	*weidēietor*
pl.	weidēiome	weidēiómedha	*weid*ēiomor
	weidēiete	weidēiedhue	*weid*ēiedhuer
	weidēiónt	weidēionto	*weid*ēiontor

NOTE. Verba Vocalia in -ḗiō, if they are not Causatives, have usually zero-grade, as in this example widḗiō; cf.Lat. vĭdĕō, stŭpĕō, stŭdĕō, etc., as in derivatives in-n- or -io. However, without this sense they have usually full-grade, cf. Gk. ειδω, Rus. vižu, and so on.

II. Aorist Stem

loutus, to wash

AORIST STEM lou-s- (Sigmatic Aorist)

ACTIVE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative
sg.	lousṃ	lousóm	lousijēm
	lous(s)	lousés	lousijēs
	loust	lousét	lousijēt
pl.	lousme	lousome	lousīme
	louste	lousete	lousīte
	lousṇt	lousónt	lousijṇt

MIDDLE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative
sg.	lousma	lousa	lousijā
	lous(s)o	lóuseso	lousīso
	lousto	lóuseto	lousīto
pl.	lóusmedha	lóusomedhā	lousmedha
	lousdhue	lóusedhue	lousīdhue
	lousṇto	lóusonto	lousíjṇto

deiktus, to show

AORIST STEM dik-ó- (zero-grade)

ACTIVE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative
sg.	dikóm	dikṓ	dikóim
	dikés	dikḗs	dikóis
	dikét	dikḗt	dikóit
pl.	dikome	dikōme	dikoime
	dikete	dikēte	dikoite
	dikónt	dikṓnt	dikóint

MIDDLE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative
sg.	diká	dik	dikoia
	dikeso	dikēso	dikóiso
	diketo	dikēto	dikoito
pl.	dikómedha	dikṓmedhā	dikóimedha
	dikedhue	dikēdhue	dikoidhue
	dikonto	dikōnto	dikójṇto

weistus, to see, know

AORIST STEM wid-ó- (zero-grade)

ACTIVE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative
sg.	widóm	widṓ	widóim
	widés	widḗs	widóis
	widét	widḗt	widóit
pl.	widome	widōme	widoime
	widete	widēte	widoite
	widónt	widṓnt	widóint

MIDDLE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative
sg.	widá	wid	widoia
	wideso	widḗso	widoiso
	wideto	widēto	widoito
pl.	widómedha	widṓmedhā	widóimedha
	widedhue	widēdhue	widoidhue
	widonto	widōnto	widójṇto

III. Perfect Stem

loutus, to wash

PERFECT STEM lōw-/lou-

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	PAST*	MIDDLE*
sg	lōwa	lōwō	lōwóim	lōwóm	lōwā
	lōuta	lōwes	lōwóis	lōwés	lṓweso
	lōwe	lōwet	lōwóit	lōwét	lṓweto
pl	loumé	lṓwome	lōwoime	lōwome	lṓ*womedha*
	louté	lṓwete	lōwoite	lōwete	lṓ*wedhue*
	lowŕ	lṓwont	lōwóint	lōwónt	lṓ*wonto*

deiktus, to show

PERFECT STEM doik-/dik-

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	PAST*	MIDDLE*
sg	doika	doikō	doikóim	*doikóm*	*doik*ā
	doikta	doikes	doikóis	*doikés*	*dóikeso*
	doike	doiket	doikóit	*doikét*	*dóiketo*
pl	dikmé	dóikome	doikoime	*doikome*	*dóikomedha***
	dikté	dóikete	doikoite	*doikete*	*dóikedhue***
	dikḗr	doikont	doikóint	*doikónt*	*dóikonto***

weistus, to see, know

PERFECT STEM woid-/wid-

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	PAST*	MIDDLE*
sg	woida	woidō	woidóim	*woidóm*	*woid*ā
	woistaⁱ	woides	woidóis	*woidés*	*wóideso*
	woide	woidet	woidóit	*woidét*	*wóideto*
pl	widmé	wóidome	woidoime	*woidome*	*wóidomedha***
	wistéⁱⁱ	wóidete	woidoite	*woidete*	*wóidedhue***
	widḗr	woidont	woidóint	*woidónt*	*wóidonto***

ⁱFrom *woidta. ⁱⁱ From *widté.

IV. Future Stem

loutus, to wash

FUTURE STEM lou-s-io-

	Future	Conditional*
sg	lousiō	*lousiom*
	lóusiesi	*lousies*
	lóusieti	*lousiet*
pl	lóusiomes	*lóusi*ome
	lóusiete	*lóusiete*
	lóusionti	*lousiont*

deiktus, to show

FUTURE STEM deik-s-o-

	Future	Conditional*
sg	deiksō	*deiks*om
	déiksesi	*deikses*
	déikseti	*deikset*
pl	déiksomes	*déiks*ome
	déiksete	*déiksete*
	déiksonti	*deiksont*

weistus, to see, know

FUTURE STEM weid-s-o-

	Indicative	Conditional*
sg	weidsō	*weids*om
	wéidsesi	*weidse*s
	wéidseti	*weids*et
pl	wéidsomes	*wéids*ome
	wéidsete	*wéidsete***
	wéidsonti	*weidsont***

7.8.2. Athematic Inflection

I. Present Stem

estus, to be

PRESENT STEM es-/s-

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative	IMPERFECT
sg.	esmi	esō	síēm	-	esṃ
	essi	eses	síēs	es (sdhi)	es(s)
	esti	eset	síēt	estōd	est
pl.	smés	ésome	sīme	-	esme
	sté	ésete	sīte	(e)ste	este
	senti	esont	sijent	sentōd	esent
Participle: sonts, sontia, sont

NOTE. Proto-Indo-European verb es, be, is a copula and verb substantive; it originally built only a durative aspect of present, and was therefore supported in some dialects (as Gmc., Sla., Lat.) by the root bheu-, be, exist, which helped to build some future and past formations.

For cognates of the singular forms and the 3^rd person plural, compare Gmc. ezmi, ezzi, esti, senti (cf. Goth. im, is, is, sind, O.N. em, est, es, O.E. eom, eart, ist, sind/sint, O.H.G. -,-, ist, sind, Eng. am, art, is, -), Lat. sum (<ésomi), es(s), est, sunt (<sonti), Gk. ειμί, εῖ, εστί, εἰσί (Dor. ἐντί), O.Ind. ásmi, ási, ásti, sánti, Av. ahmi (O.Pers. amiy), -, asti, hanti, Arm. em, es, ē, -, O.Pruss. asmai, assai, est, Lith. esmì, esì, ẽsti, O.C.S. jesmь, jesi, jestъ, sǫtъ (<sonti), Russ. есмь, еси, есть, суть (<sonti), O.Ir. am, a-t, is, it (cf. O.Welsh hint) Alb. jam,-,-, etc.

kleutus¡Error! Marcador no definido., to hear

PRESENT STEM kluneu-/klunu- (with Nasal Infix)

ACTIVE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
sg.	kluneumi	klewō	klunuíjēm	-
	kluneusi	klewes	klunuíjēs	klunéu(dhi)
	kluneuti	klewet	klunuíjēt	kluneutōd
pl.	klunumes	kléwome	klunuīme	-
	klunute	kléwete	klunuīte	kluneute
	klununti	klewont	klunuíjṇt	klunéwṇtōd

NOTE. Indicative forms may usually be read klunumés, klunuté, klununti, as in Vedic.

MIDDLE-PASSIVE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	PASSIVE*
sg.	kluneumai	klewā	klunuīma	*kluneuar*
	kluneusoi	kléweso	klunuīso	*klunéuesor*
	kluneutoi	kléweto	klunuīto	*klunéuetor*
pl.	klunéumesdha	kléwomedhā	klunumedha	*klunéuomor*
	kluneudhe	kléwedhue	klunuīdhue	*klunéuedhuer*
	klunewṇtoi	kléwonto	klunuíjṇto	*klunéuontor*

NOTE. Athematic Optatives form the Present with zero-grade; cf. Lat. siēm, duim, Gk. ισταιην, διδοιην, τιθειην, O.Ind. syaam (asmi), dvisyām (dvesmi), iyām (emi), juhuyām (juhkomi), sunuykām (sunomi), rundhyām (runadhmi), kuryām (karomi), krīnīyām (krīnāmi), etc. Exceptions are Lat. uelim (not uulim), Goth. (concave) wiljau, wileis, etc.

IMPERFECT

	ACTIVE	MIDDLE	PASSIVE*
sg.	klunewṃ	klew	*klunew*ár
	klunéus	kleweso	*klunewesor*
	klunéut	kleweto	*klunewetor*
pl.	kluneume	klewómedhā	*klunewomor*
	kluneute	klewedhue	*klunewedhuer*
	klunewṇt	klewonto	*klunewontor*

stātus62, to stand

PRESENT STEM (si)stā-/(si)sta-

ACTIVE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative
sg.	(sí)stāmi	stāiō	(si)staíjēm	-
	(sí)stāsi	stāies	(si)staíjēs	(sí)stā(dhi)
	(sí)stāti	stāiet	(si)staíjēt	(sí)stātōd
pl.	(sí)stames	stiome	(si)stame	-
	(sí)state	stiete	(si)state	(sí)state
	(sí)stanti	stāiont	(si)staíjṇt	(sí)stanti

NOTE. Indicative forms may usually be read sistamés, sistaté, sistánti, as in Vedic.

MIDDLE-PASSIVE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	PASSIVE*
sg.	(sí)stāmai	stāiā	(si)stama	(sí)stāmar
	(sí)stāsoi	stieso	(si)staso	(sí)stāsor
	(sí)stātoi	stieto	(si)stato	(sí)stātor
pl.	(sí)stāmesdha	stiomedha	(si)stamedha	(sí)stāmor
	(sí)stādhe	stiedhue	(si)stadhue	(sí)stāsdhuer
	(sí)stāntoi	stionto	(si)staíjṇto	(sí)stāntor

IMPERFECT

	ACTIVE	MIDDLE	PASSIVE*
sg.	(si)stām	(si)stāma	(si)stāmar
	(si)stās	(si)stāso	(si)stāsor
	(si)stāt	(si)stāto	(si)stātor
pl.	(si)stāme	(si)stmedha	(si)stāmor
	(si)stāte	(si)stādhue	(si)stādhuer
	(si)stānt	(si)stānto	(si)stāntor

II. Aorist Stem

estus, to be (only Active)

AORIST STEM es-/s-

sg.	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative
	esṃ	esóm	síēm
	es(s)	esés	síēs
	est	esét	síēt
pl.	esme	esome	sīme
	este	esete	sīte
	esṇt	esónt	sijent

NOTE. The Aorist was built with the regular Aorist Stem and dialectal Augment, viz. ēs-(>é+es-), adding Secondary Endings. Compare Old Indian Sg. ā́sam, ās, ās, Pl. ā́sma, ā́sta, ā́san, Gk. Hom. 1. Sg. ἦα, 2. Sg hom. att. ἦσθα, 3. Sg. dor. etc. ἦς, Pl. hom. ἦμεν, ἦτε, ἦσαν,cf. also Lat. erat, Hitt. e-eš-ta (ēsta), Alb. isha.

bheutus, to become, be

AORIST STEM bhū- or bhuw-

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative
sg.	bhūm	bhuwóm	bhuwijēm
	bhūs	bhuwés	bhuwijēs
	bhūt	bhuwét	bhuwijēt
pl.	bhūme	bhuwome	bhuwīme
	bhūte	bhuwete	bhuwīte
	bhūnt/bhuwṇt	bhuwónt	bhuwijent
Pres. Part. bhuwonts, bhuwṇtia, bhuwont

NOTE. The Verb es-, be, has been sometimes substituted or mixed in its conjugation (specially in past and future forms) by IE bheu-, be, exist, grow, compare Gmc. bu-, “dwell” (cf. Goth. bauan, “live”, O.E., O.H.G. būan, O.E. bēon, in bēo, bist, biþ, pl. bēoþ, or Ger. bin, bist, Eng. be), Lat. fui, “I was”, and futurus, “future”, Gk. φύομαι, O.Ind. bhávati, bhū́tíṣ, bhūtíṣ, Lith. bū́ti, O.C.S. бъіти, Russ. быть, был, Pol. być, O.Ir. buith.[177]

kleutus, to hear

AORIST STEM klū-/kluw-

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative
sg.	klwom	klwōm	klwijēm
	klwes	klwēs	klwijēs
	klwet	klwēt	klwijēt
pl.	klwome	klwōme	klwīme
	klwete	klwēte	klwīte
	klwont	klwōnt	klwíjent

MIDDLE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative
sg.	klwomā	klwōma	klwijā
	klweso	klwēso	klwīso
	klweto	klwēto	klwīto
pl.	klwómesdha	klwṓmedha	klwmedha
	klwedhue	klwēdhuer	klwīdhue
	klwonto	klwōnto	klwíjṇto

stātus, to stand

AORIST STEM (é-)stā-

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative
sg.	stām	stāiṓ	stāíjēm
	stās	stāiés	stāíjēs
	stāt	stāiét	stāíjēt
pl.	stamé	stāiome	stāīme
	staté	stāiete	stāīte
	stant	stāiónt	stāíjṇt

MIDDLE

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative
sg.	stāma	stāi	stāíjā
	stāso	stāieso	stāīso
	stāto	stāieto	stāīto
pl.	stmedha	stāiómedha	stāmedha
	stādhue	stāiedhue	stāīdhue
	stānto	stāionto	stāíjṇto

III. Perfect Stem

bheutus, to become, be

PERFECT STEM bhū-i- (Pres. – see Jasanoff 2003)

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	PAST*	MIDDLE*
sg	bhūia	bhūiō	bhūjijēm	bhūióm	bhūiā
	bhū́ita	bhū́iowes	bhūjijēs	bhūiés	bhū*́ieso*
	bhūie	bhū́iowet	bhūjijēt	bhūiét	bhū*́ieto*
pl	bhūimé	bhū́iowome	bhūjīme	bhūiome	bhū́iomedha
	bhūité	bhū́iowete	bhūjīte	bhūiete	bhū́iedhue
	bhūiḗr	bhū́iowont	bhūjijṇt	bhūiónt	bhū́ionto

kleutus, to hear

PERFECT STEM ké-klou-

	Indicative	Subjunctive	Optative	PAST*	MIDDLE*
sg	kéklowa	kéklowō	keklowijēm	*keklowóm*	*kéklowā*
	kéklouta	kéklowes	keklowijēs	*keklowés*	*kékloweso*
	kéklowe	kéklowet	keklowijēt	*keklowét*	*kékloweto*
pl	keklumé	kéklowome	keklowīme	*keklowome*	*kéklowomedha***
	kekluté	kéklowete	keklowīte	*keklowete*	*kéklowedhue***
	keklwḗr	kéklowont	keklowijṇt	*keklowónt*	*kéklowonto***

IV. Future Stem

bheutus, to become, be

FUTURE STEM bheu-s-o-

	Future	Conditional*
sg	bheusō	*bheusom*
	bhéusesi	*bheuses*
	bhéuseti	*bheuset*
pl	bhéusomes	*bhéus*ome
	bhéusete	*bhéusete*
	bhéusonti	*bheusont*

kleutus, to hear

FUTURE STEM kleu-s-o-

	Future	Conditional*
sg	kleusō	*kleusom*
	kléusesi	*kleuses*
	kléuseti	*kleuset*
pl	kléusomes	*kléus*ome
	kléusete	*kléusete*
	kléusonti	*kleusont*

7.8.3. Other Common PIE Stems

I. Thematic Verbs

Root

o Present lowō, I wash, Imperfect lowóm, Aorist (é)lousṃ.

o Present serpō, I crawl, Imperfect serpóm, Aorist (é)sṛpom.

o Present bherō, I carry, Imperfect bheróm., Aorist (é)bherom.

o Present bheugō, I flee, Imperfect bheugóm, Aorist (é)bhugom.

o Present bheidhō, I believe, persuade, Imperfect bheidhóm, Aorist (é)bhidhom.

o Present weqō, I speak, Imperfect weqóm, Aorist (Them. Redupl.) (é)weuqom

o Present tremō, I tremble, Imperfect tremóm, Aorist (é)tṛmom.

NOTE. A particular sub-class of Thematic Presents without suffix is of the tipe Skr. tudati, which have Present Stems with zero-grade root-vowel, as glubhō/gleubhō, skin.

Reduplicated

There are many reduplicatd thematic stems, analogous to the athematic ones:

o Present gignō, I generate, (from gen-), Imperfect gignóm, Aorist (é)gṇom/(é)genom, Perfect gégona, P.Part. gn̅tós (cf. O.Ind. jatá, Lat. nātus).

NOTE. For gn̅tós, cf. O.Ind. jātás, Av. zāta-; Lat. nātus, Pael. cnatois, Gaul. f. gnātha “daughter”; O.N. kundr “son”, also in compound, cf. Goth. -kunds, “ be a descendant of “, O.E. -kund, O.N. -kunnr.

o Present pibō, I drink (from *pípō, from pōi-) Imperfect pibóm.

o Present mimnō, I remember, (from men-[178]), Imperfect mimnóm.

in -io

Some of them are causatives.

o Present spekiō, I watch, Imperfect spekióm, Aorist (é)speksṃ, P.Part. spektós.

o Present teniō, I stretch, Imperfect tenjóm, Aorist (é)tṇom/(é)tenóm, Perfect tétona, P.Part. tṇtós.

Verba Vocalia

o Present bhorēiō, I make carry, from bher-, carry.

o Present w(e)idēiō, I see, I know, Imperfect w(e)idēióm, Aorist (é)widóm, Perfect woida P.Part. wistós (<*widtós).

o Present monēiō, I make think, remember, as Lat. moneo, from men, think.

o Present tromēiō, I make tremble, from trem, tremble.

In -sko

Verbs built with this suffix have usually two main functions in the attested Proto-Indo-European verbs:

§ Durative action, Intensive or Repetitive (i.e., Intensive-Iterative), as attested in Greek;

§ Incompleted action, with an Inchoative value, indicating that the action is beginning.

Common examples include:

o Present pṛkskṓ, I ask, demand, inquire (cf. Lat. posco, Ger. forschen, v.i.) from prek, ask.

o Present gṇńskai, I am born (cf. Lat. gnascor) from zero-grade gṇń-sko-, lit. “I begin to generate myself”, in turn from reduplicated verb gignō, generate.

o Present gnoskō, gígnōskō, I begin to know, I learn, from gnō-, know.

With Nasal Infix

o Present jungo, join (from jeug-), Imperfect jungóm, Aorist jēugsṃ.

NOTE. Compare O.H.G. [untar-]jauhta (as Lat. sub-jugaui), Lat. jungō, -ere, -nxi, -nctus, Gk. ζεύγνῡμι, ζεῦξαι ζυγηναι; O.Ind. yunákti (3. Pl. yuñjánti = Lat. jungunt), yuñjati, full-grade yōjayati (<jeugēieti); Av. yaoj-, yuj-; Lit. jùngiu, jùngti, etc. For Past Participles (with and without Present infix -n-), compare O.E. geoht, iukt, Lat. junctus, Gk. δεπθηόο, O.Ind. yuktá-, Av. yuxta-, Lit. jùngtas, etc.

II. Athematic Verbs

Root

They are the most archaic PIE verbs, and their Present conjugation is of the old type Singular root vowel in full-grade, Plural root vowel in zero-grade.

o Present esmi, I am, vs. Imperfect esṃ, I was/have been.

o Present eími, I walk, vs. Imperfect eím, I walked/have walked.

o Present bhāmi, I speak, vs. Imperfect bhām, I spoke/have spoken.

NOTE. The verb talk is sometimes reconstructed as PIE *āmi, I talk, and Imperfect *ām, I talked/have talked; for evidence of an original ag(h)-iō, compare Lat. aiō, Gk. ην, Umb. aiu, Arm. asem. Thus, this paradigm would rather be Thematic, i.e. Present ag(h)iō, I talk, vs. Imperfect ag(h)ióm, I talked/have talked.

o Present edmi, I eat, vs. Imperfect edṃ, I ate/have eaten.

NOTE. Note that its Present Participle dōnts/dents, “eating”, might be used as substantive, meaning “tooth”.

o Present welmi, I want, vs. Imperfect welṃ, I wanted/have wanted.

Reduplicated

o Present sístāmi (from stā-, stand), Imperfect (si)stām, Aorist (é)stām, P.Part. statós.

o Present déidikmi (from deik-, show), Imperfect deidikṃ, Aorist (é)dēiksṃ, Perfect dédoika, P.Part. diktós.

o Present dhídhēmi (from dhē-, do, make), Imperfect dhidhḗm, Aorist (é)dhēm, P.Part. dhatós.

o Present dídōmi (from dō-, give), Imperfect didṓm, Aorist (é)dōm, P.Part. datós.

o Present jíjēmi, throw, Imperfect jijḗm, Aorist (é)jem.

NOTE. For evidence on an original PIE jíjēmi, and not *jíjāmi as usually reconstructed, cf. Lat. pret. iēcī, a form due to its two consecutive laryngeals, while Lat. iaciō is a present remade (Julián González Fernández, 1981).

With Nasal Infix

o klunéumi, hear (from kleu-), Imperfect klunéwṃ, Aorist (é)klwom, Perfect kéklowa, P.Part. klutós, meaning “heard” and also “famous”.

NOTE. For zero-grade klu-, and not *kḷ-, as usually reconstructed (since Pokorny’s Wörterbuch), and for a suffix -neu, and not a nasal infix -n-, *kl-n-eu-, cf. Buddh. Skr. śrun; Av. surunaoiti; Shughni çin; O.Ir. cluinethar; Toch. A and B käln. Therefore, Skr. śRno-/śRnu- < kluneu-/klunu- shows a loss of u analogous to the loss of i in tRtī́ya- ‘third’ < IE tritijo-.

o punémi, rot (from pew), Imperfect puném, Aorist (é)pēwsṃ.

9. Proto-Indo-European Syntax

9.1. The Sentence

A Sentence is a form of words which contains a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command.

a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declarative Sentence: as, the dog runs.

b. A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Interrogative Sentence: as, does the dog run?

c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an Exclamatory Sentence: as, how fast the dog runs !

d. A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an Entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence : as, go, run across the Alps; or let the dog run.

NOTE. After Lehman (1974), “The fundamental order of sentences in PIE appears to be OV. Support for this assumption is evident in the oldest texts of the materials attested earliest in the IE dialects. The fundamental order of sentences in these early dialects cannot be determined solely by frequency of sentence patterns. For, like other linguistic constructions, sentence patterns manifest marked as well as unmarked order. Marked order is expected in literary materials. The documents surviving from the earliest dialects are virtually all in verse or in literary forms of prose. Accordingly many of the individual sentences do not have the unmarked order, with verb final. For this reason conclusions about the characteristic word order of PIE and the early dialects will be based in part on those syntactic patterns that are rarely modified for literary and rhetorical effect: comparative constructions, the presence of postpositions and prepositions, and the absence of prefixes, (...)”.

Lehman is criticized by Friedrich (1975) who, like Watkins (1976) and Miller (1975), support a VO prehistoric situation, probably SVO (like those found in ‘central’ IE areas), with non-consistent dialectal SOV findings. In any case (viz. Lehman and Miller), an older IE I or IE II OV (VSO for Miller) would have been substituted by a newer VO (SOV for Miller, later SVO through a process of verb transposition) – thus, all Indo-European dialects attested have evolved (thus probably from a common Late PIE trend) into a modern SVO.

Modern Indo-European, as a modern IE language, may follow the stricter formal patterns attested in the oldest inscriptions, i.e. (S)OV, as in Vedic Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Old Latin and Avestan. A newer, general (S)VO order (found in Greek, Latin, Avestan, Germanic, etc.), which reveals the change from OV in Early PIE towards a VO in Late PIE for the spoken language of Europe – and even some forms of litterary uses, as e.g. journalism – could be used in non-formal contexts.

9.1.1. Kinds of Sentences

PIE sentences were either Nominal, i.e. formed by nouns, or Verbal, if they included a verb.

I. A Subject and a Predicate. The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of. The Predicate is that which is said of the Subject.

a. The Subject is usually a Noun or Pronoun, or some word or group of words used as a Noun.

b. The Predicate of a sentence may be a Verb (as the dog runs), or it may consist of some form of es and a Noun or Adjective which describes or defines the subject (as It is good). Such a noun or adjective is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective.

II. In Proto-Indo-European, simple sentences may be composed of only one word, a noun or a verb; as, God!, or (it) rains.

NOTE 1. Nominal sentences of this type are usually Interjections and Vocatives. Verbal sentences of this type include Imperatives (at least of 2^nd P.Sg.) and impersonal verbs, which had never a subject in the oldest dialects attested; as, for Eng. (it) rains, cf. Goth. rigneiþ, Lat. pluit, Gk. ὓει, Skt. várṣati. It is believed that when IE dialects became SVO in structure, so that a subject was required, the third singular anaphoric pronoun, corresponding to it, German es, French il, etc., was introduced as subject in such sentences. Such pronouns were introduced because SVO languages must have subjects in sentences, as do intransitive verbs in any OV language. Such verbs could be supplemented by substantives in various cases, among them the accusative. These constructions are especially prominent for verbs referring to the emotions; as, Lat. miseret, pudet, taedet, Skr. kitaváṃ tatāpa. Compare also Cicero’s Lat. eōrum nōs miseret, or O.H.G. thes gánges thih nirthrúzzi. In PIE sentences various case forms could be used with verbs. The simplest sentences may consist of verbs accompanied by nouns in seven of the eight cases; only the vocative is not so used. The nouns fill the role of objects or, possibly better stated, of complements.

NOTE 2. Besides the simple sentence which consists only of a verb, a simple sentence in the early dialects and in PIE could consist of a verb accompanied by a noun or pronoun as complement. A subject however wasn’t mandatory. Nor were other constructions which may seem to be natural, such as indirect objects with verbs like ‘give’. The root *dō- or in its earlier form *deH- had in its simplest sense the meaning ‘present’ and was often unaccompanied by any nominal expression (Lehman).

9.1.2. Nominal Sentence

Nominal sentences, in which a substantive is equated with another substantive, an adjective, or a particle, make up one of the simplest type of sentence in PIE.

NOTE 1. Such a type of sentence is found in almost every IE dialect; cf. Hitt. attaš aššuš, “the father (is) good”, Skr. tváṃ váruṇa, “you (are) Varuna”, O.Pers. adam Dārayavauš, “I (am) Darius”, Lat. omnia praeclara rara, “all the best things (are) rare”, etc. In all dialects, however, such sentences were restricted in its use to a especially formal use or, on the contrary, they are found more often than originally in PIE. Thus, in Latin and Germanic dialects they are found in proverbs and sayings, as in Old Irish; in Greek it is also found in epic and poetry. However, in Balto-Slavic dialects the pure nominal sentence has become the usual type of nominal sentence, even when the predicate is an adverb or an adverbial case. However, such a use, which is more extended in modern dialects (like Russian) than in the older ones (as Old Slavic), is considered the result of Finno-Ugrian influence.

NOTE 2. In the course of time a nominal sentence required a verb; this development is in accordance with the subjective characteristic of PIE and the endings which came to replace the individual qualifier markers of early PIE. The various dialects no longer had a distinct equational sentence type. Verbs might of course be omitted by ellipsis. And, remarkably, in Slavic, nominal sentences were reintroduced, as Meillet has demonstrated (1906-1908). The reintroduction is probably a result of influence from OV languages, such as the Finno-Ugric. This phenomenon illustrates that syntactic constructions and syntactic characteristics must be carefully studied before they can be ascribed to inheritance. In North Germanic too an OV characteristic was reintroduced, with the loss of prefixes towards the end of the first millennium A.D. (Lehmann 1970). Yet in spite of these subsequent OV influences, nominal sentences must be assumed for PIE.

A. There are traces of Pure Nominal Sentences with a predicate made by an oblique case of a noun or a prepositional compound, although they are not common to all Indo-European dialects.

NOTE. Apart from Balto-Slavic examples (due to Finno-Ugric influence), only some isolated examples are found; cf. Skr. havyaír Agnír mánuṣa īrayádhyai, “Agni must be prayed with the sacrifices of men”, Gk. pàr hépoige kaì hálloi oi ké mé timḗsousi, “near me (there are) others who [particle] will praise me” (Mendoza).

B. In addition to such expansions by means of additional nouns in nonrequired cases, sentences could be expanded by means of particles.

NOTE. For Lehman, three subsets of particles came to be particularly important. One of these is the set of preverbs, such as ā. Another is the set of sentence connectives, such as Hitt. nu. The third is the set of qualifier expressions, e.g., PIE mē ‘(must) not’. An additional subset, conjunctions introducing clauses, will be discussed below in the section on compound clauses.

Preverbs are distinctively characterized by being closely associated with verbs and modifying their meaning. In their normal position they stand directly before verbs (Watkins 1964).

Generally, thus, Concordance governed both members of the Pure Nominal Sentence.

NOTE. Unlike the personal verb and its complements (governed by inflection), the Nominal Sentence showed a strong reliance on Concordance between Subject and Predicate as a definitory feature: both needed the same case, and tended to have the same number and gender.

The Copulative Verb

The copulative verb es is only necessary when introducing late categories in the verbal morphology, like Time and Mood. Therefore, when the Mood is the Indicative, and the Time is neuter (proverbs without timing, or Present with semantic neuter) there is no need to use es.

NOTE 1. The basic form of nominal sentences has, however, been a matter of dispute. Some Indo-Europeanists propose that the absence of a verb in nominal sentences is a result of ellipsis and assume an underlying verb es- ‘be’ (Benveniste 1950). They support this assumption by pointing to the requirement of such a verb if the nominal sentence is in the past tense; cf. Hitt. ABU.I̯A genzuu̯alaš ešta, “My father was merciful”. On the contrary, Meillet (1906-1908), followed by Lehman and Mendoza, thought that nominal sentences did not require a verb but that a verb might be included for emphasis. This conclusion may be supported by noting that the qualifiers which were found in PIE could be used in nominal sentences without a verb. As an example we may cite a Hittite sentence which is negative and imperative, 1-aš 1-edani menahhanda lē idāluš, “One should not be evil toward another one”. Yet, if a passage was to be explicit, a form of es could be used, as in Skr. nákir indra tvád úttaro ná jyyāṅ asti, “No one is higher than you, Indra, nor greater”.

NOTE 2. On the original meaning of es, since Brugmann (1925) meant originally “exist” hence its use as a copulative verb through constructions in which the predicate express the existence of the subject, as in Hom. Gk. eím Oduseús Laertiádes, “I am Odisseus, son of Laertes” (Mendoza). In PIE times there were seemingly other verbs (with similar meanings of ‘exist’) which could be used as copulatives; compare IE bhū, “exist, become, grow” (cf. O.Ind. bhávati, or as supletives in Lat. past fui, O.Ir. ba, O.Lith. búvo, fut. bùs, O.C.S. impf. bease, etc.), Germanic wes, ‘live, dwell’.

9.1.3. Verbal Sentence

The most simple structure of the common Indo-European sentence consists of a verb, i.e. the carrying out of an action. In it, none of the verbal actors (Subject and Object) must be expressed – the subject is usually not obligatory, and the object appears only when it is linked to the lexical nature of the verb.

NOTE. The oldest morphological categories, even time, were expressed in the PIE through lexical means, and many remains are found of such a system; cf. Hitt. -za (reflexive), modal particles in Gk. and O.Ind., modal negation in some IE dialects, or the simple change in intonation, which made interrogative or imperative a declarative sentence – in fact, the imperative lacks a mark of its own.

The relationship between the Subject and the Object is expressed through the case.

There is no clear morphological distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs in Proto-Indo-European.

NOTE. Some Indo-European dialects have specialized some verbal suffixes as transitives (causatives) or intransitives, as Gk. -en, Gmc. -io, Lat. -a, etc., while in some others a preverb combined with a verbal root makes the basic verb transitive or intransitive.

When subjects are explicitly expressed, the nominative is the case employed.

NOTE. Expression of the subject is the most prominent extension of simple sentences to include more than one substantival expression. Besides such explicit mention of the subject, predicates may consist of verbs accompanied by two or more nouns, in cases which supplement the meanings of the verbs (v.i.). Such constructions must be distinguished from the inclusion of additional nouns whose case forms indicate adverbial use.

Few verbs are mandatorily accompanied by two nouns.

1. the use of the dative in addition to the accusative, as in Skr. tbhiām enaṃ pári dehi, ‘Give him over to those two’.

2. the instrumental and ablative, as Skr. áhan vṛtrám ... índro vájreṇa, ‘Indra killed ... Vṛtra with his bolt’. Skr. tváṃ dásyūm̐r ókaso agna ājaḥ, ‘You drove the enemies from the house, O Agni.’

NOTE. While the addition to these sentences which is indicated by the nouns in the instrumental and the ablative is essential for the meaning of the lines in their context, it does not need to be included in the sentence for syntactic reasons.

3. The causative accompanied by two accusatives, as Skr. devn̐ uśataḥ pāyayā havíḥ, ‘Make the desiring gods drink the libation’.

In such sentences the agent-accusative represents the object of the causative element: as Arthur A. Macdonell indicated (1916), in a corresponding simple sentence this noun would have been given in the nominative, as Skr. dev havíḥ pibanti, ‘The gods drink the libation’.

Accordingly a simple verb in PIE was at the most accompanied by one substantive, unless the additional substantive was complementary or adverbial.

Local Cases: Predicates with two or more substantives

Nonmandatory case forms are found in great variety, as may be determined from the studies of substantival inflections and their uses. Five groups of adverbial elements are identified: (1) circumstance, purpose, or result; (2) time; (3) place; (4) manner; (5) means.

1) Additional case forms may be used to indicate the Purpose, Result, or Circumstance of an action.

So e.g. the Instrumental in Skr. mṛḷáyā naḥ suastí, ‘Be gracious to us for our well-being’.

The Dative was commonly used in this sense, as in the infinitival form Skr. prá ṇa yur jīváse soma tārīḥ ‘Extend our years, soma, for our living [so that we may live long].’,

NOTE. Cf. Hitt. nu-kan ^mNana-Luin kuin DUMU.LUGAL ANA ^mNuwanza haluki para nehhun, ‘and the prince NanaLUiš whom I sent to Nuwanza to convey the message’ where Hittite dative noun haluki. (Raman 1973).

When an animate noun is involved, this use of the dative has been labeled the indirect object; as, Skr. riṇákti kṛṣṇ raṛuṣya pánthām, ‘Black night gives up the path to the red sun’.

NOTE. As these examples may indicate, the dative, like the other cases, must be interpreted with reference to the lexical properties of the verbal element.

2) A further adverbial segment in sentences indicates the Time of Occurrence. The cases in question are various, as in Skr. dívā náktaṃ śárum asmád yuyotam, ‘By day and during the night protect us from the arrow’.

NOTE. The nominal form dívā, which with change of accent is no longer an instrumental but an adverbial form outside the paradigm, and the accusative náktaṃ differ in meaning. The instrumental, like the locative, refers to a point in time, though the “point” may be extended; the accusative, to an extent of time. Differing cases accordingly provide different meanings for nouns marked for the lexical category time.

3) Nouns indicating Place also differ in meaning according to case form:

A. The Accusative indicates the goal of an action, as in Lat. Rōmam īre ‘go to Rome’, Hitt. tuš alkištan tarnahhe ‘and those (birds) I release to the branch’ (Otten and Souček 1969:38 § 37).

B. The Instrumental indicates the place “over which an action extends” (Macdonell 1916: 306): sárasvatyā yānti ‘they go along the Sarasvatī’.

C. The Ablative indicates the starting point of the action: sá ráthāt papāta ‘he fell from his chariot’; and the following example from Hittite (Otten and Souček 1969): iššaz (š)mit lālan AN.BARaš [d]āi, ‘He takes the iron tongue out of their mouths.’

D. The Locative indicates a point in space, e.g., Skt. diví ‘in heaven’ or the locative kardi in the following Hittite example (Otten and Souček): kardi-šmi-i̯a-at-kán dahhun, ‘And I took away that [illness which was] in your heart’.

Nouns with lexical features for place and for time may be used in the same sentence, as in Skr. ástam úpa náktam eti, ‘He goes during the night to the house’. Although both nouns are in the Accusative, the differing lexical features lead to different interpretations of the case. In this way, inflectional markers combine with lexical features to yield a wide variety of adverbial elements.

4) Among the adverbial elements which are most diverse in surface forms are those referring to Manner. Various cases are used, as follows.

A. The Accusative is especially frequent with adjectives, such as Skt. kṣiprám ‘quickly’, bahú ‘greatly’, nyák ‘downward’.

B. The Instrumental is also used, in the plural, as in Skt. máhobhiḥ ‘mightily’, as well as in the singular, sáhasā ‘suddenly’.

Similar to the expression of manner is the instrumental used to express the sense of accompaniment: Skr. devó devébhir ā́gamat, ‘May the god come [in such a way that he is] accompanied by the other gods’.

C. The Ablative is also used to express manner in connection with a restricted number of verbs such as those expressing ‘fear’: réjante víśvā kṛtrímāṇi bhīṣ, ‘All creatures tremble fearfully’.

5) Adverbial expressions of Means are expressed especially by the instrumental; as, Skr. áhan vṛtrám ... índro vájreṇa, ‘Indra killed ... Vṛtra with his bolt.’ The noun involved frequently refers to an instrument; cf. Hitt. kalulupuš šmuš gapinit hulaliemi, ‘I wind the thread around their fingers’.

Animate nouns may also be so used. When they are, they indicate the agent: agnínā turváṣaṃ yáduṃ parāváta ugr devaṃ havāmahe, ‘Through Agni we call from far Turvasa, Yadu, and Ugradeva’. This use led to the use of the instrumental as the agent in passive constructions.

9.2. Sentence Modifiers

9.2.1. Intonation Patterns

The sentence was characterized in PIE by patterns of Order and by Selection.

A. Selection classes were determined in part by inflection, in part by lexical categories, most of which were covert.

NOTE. Some lexical categories were characterized at least in part by formal features, such as abstract nouns marked by -ti-, nouns in the religious sphere marked by -u- and collectives marked by *-h.

B. In addition to characterization by means of order and categories of selection, the sentence was also delimited by Intonation based on variations in pitch.

To the extent that the pitch phonemes of PIE have been determined, a high pitch may be posited, which could stand on one syllable per word, and a low pitch, which was not so restricted.

NOTE. The location of the high pitch is determined by Lehman primarily from the evidence in Vedic; the theory that this was inherited from PIE received important corroboration from Karl Verner’s demonstration of its maintenance into Germanic (1875). Thus the often cited correlation between the position of the accent in the Vedic perfect and the differing consonants in Germanic provided decisive evidence for reconstruction of the PIE pitch accent as well as for Verner’s law, as in the perfect (preterite) forms of the root deik-, show.

	PIE	Vedic	O.E.	O.H.G.
1 sg.	dedóika	didéśa	tāh	zēh
1 pl.	dedikmé	didiśimá	tigon	zigum

Words were characterized on one syllable by a high pitch accent, unless they were enclitic, that is, unmarked for accent.

Accented words could lose their high pitch accent if they were placed at specific positions in sentences.

A. Vocatives lost their accent if they were medial in a sentence or clause; and finite verbs lost their accent unless they stood initially in an independent clause or in any position in a dependent clause in Vedic. These same rules may be assumed for PIE. On the basis of the two characteristic patterns of loss of accent for verbs, characteristic patterns of intonation may also be posited for the IE sentence.

Judging on the basis of loss of high pitch accent of verbs in them, independent clauses were characterized by final dropping in pitch. For in unmarked order the verb stands finally in the clause.

Clauses, however, which are marked either to convey emphasis or to indicate subordination, do not undergo such lowering. They may be distinguished with final

NOTE. The intonation pattern indicated by apparently conveyed the notion of an emotional or emphatic utterance or one requiring supplementation, as by another clause. These conclusions are supported by the patterns found in Germanic alliterative verse. For, as is well known, verbs were frequently placed by poets in the fourth, nonalliterating, metrically prominent position in the line: þeodcyninga þrym gefrūnon, of-people’s-kings glory we-heard-of, ‘We heard of the glory of the kings of the people’. This placing of verbs, retained by metrical convention in Germanic verse, presumably maintains evidence for the IE intonation pattern. For, by contrast, verbs could alliterate when they stood initially in clauses or in subordinate clauses; egsode eorlas, syððan ǣrest wearð, he-terrified men since first he-was, ‘He terrified men from the time he first was [found]’. þenden wordum wēold wine Scyldinga, as-long-as with-words he-ruled the-friend of-the-Scyldings. The patterns of alliteration in the oldest Germanic verse accordingly support the conclusions that have been derived from Vedic accentuation regarding the intonation of the Indo-European sentence, as do patterns in other dialects.

Among such patterns is the preference for enclitics in second position in the sentence (Wackernagel 1892). Words found in this position are particles, pronouns, and verbs, which have no accent in Vedic texts. This observation of Wackernagel supports the conclusion that the intonation of the sentence was characterized by initial high pitch, with the voice trailing off at the end. For the enclitic elements were not placed initially, but rather they occupied positions in which unaccented portions of words were expected, as in Skr. prāvep mā bṛható mādayanti, ‘The dangling ones of the lofty tree gladden me’. The pronoun mā ‘me’, like other such enclitics, makes up a phrase with the initial word; in this way it is comparable to unaccented syllables of individual words, as in Skr. pravātej íriṇe várvṛtānāḥ, ‘[born] in a windy place, rolling on the dice-board’

A simple sentence then consisted not only of a unit accompanied by an intonation pattern, but also of subunits or phrases. These were identified by their accent and also by patterns of permitted finals.

9.2.2. Sentence Delimiting Particles

The particles concerned are PIE nu, so, to, all of them introductory particles.

NOTE. Their homonymity with the adverb nu, nun and the anaphoric pronoun was one of the reasons earlier Indo-Europeanists failed to recognize them and their function. Yet Delbrück had already noted the clause-introducing function of Skr. sa (1888), as in Skr. tásya tni śīrṣṇi prá cicheda. sá yát somapnam sa tátaḥ kapíñjalaḥ sám abhavat, ‘He struck off his heads. From the one that drank soma, the hazel-hen was created’. Delbrück identified sa in this and other sentences as a particle and not a pronoun, for it did not agree in gender with a noun in the sentence. But it remained for Hittite to clarify the situation.

In Hittite texts the introductory use of the particles is unmistakable (J.Friedrich 1960); ta and šu occur primarily in the early texts, nu in the later, as illustrated in the following Old Hittite example (Otten and Souček 1969): GAD-an pešiemi šu- uš LÚ-aš natta aušzi ‘I throw a cloth over it and no one will see them’.

Besides such an introductory function (here as often elsewhere translated ‘and’), these particles were used as first element in a chain of enclitics, as in n-at-ši ‘and it to-him’, nu-mu-za-kan ‘and to-me self within’ and so on.

NOTE 1. In Homeric Greek such strings of particles follow different orders, but reflect the IE construction, as in: oudé nu soí per entrépetai phílon êtor, Olúmpie, ‘But your heart doesn’t notice, Zeus’. As the translation of per here indicates, some particles were used to indicate the relationships between clauses marking the simple sentence.

NOTE 2. Many simple sentences in PIE would then be similar to those in Hittite and Vedic Sanskrit, such as those in the charming story taken by Delbrück from the Śatapathabrāhmaṇa. Among the simplest is Skr. tám índro didveṣa, ‘Indra hated him’. Presumably tam is a conflated form of the particle ta and the enclitic accusative singular pronoun; the combination is attested in Hittite as ta-an (J. Friedrich 1960). Besides the use of sentence-delimiting particles, these examples illustrate the simplicity of PIE sentences. Of the fifteen sentences in the story, only two have more than one nominal form per verb, and these are adverbial as observed above. Similar examples from the other early dialects could be cited, such as the Italic inscription of Praeneste, or the Germanic Gallehus inscription: Ek HlewagastiR HoltijaR horna tawido, ‘I, Hlewagastir of Holt, made the horn’. In these late texts, the subject was mandatory, and accordingly two nominal forms had come to be standard for the sentence. If however the subject is not taken into consideration, many sentences contained only one nominal element with verbs, in the early dialects as well as in PIE.

9.3. Verbal Modifiers

9.3.1. Declarative Sentences

The Injunctive has long been identified as a form unmarked for mood and marked only for stem and person. It may thus be compared with the simplest form of OV languages.

By contrast the Present indicative indicates “mood”. We associate this additional feature with the suffix -i, and assume for it declarative meaning.

NOTE 1. Yet it is also clear that, by the time of Vedic Sanskrit and, we assume, Late PIE, the injunctive no longer contrasted directly with the present indicative. We must therefore conclude that the declarative qualifier was expressed by other means in the sentence. We assume that the means of expression was an intonation pattern. For, in normal unmarked simple sentences, finite unaccented verbs stood finally in their clause, as did the predicative elements of nominal sentences; Delbrück’s repeatedly used example may be cited once again to illustrate the typical pattern: víśaḥ kṣatríyāya balíṃ haranti, ‘The villagers pay tribute to the prince’. Since the verb haranti was unaccented, i.e., had no high pitch, we may posit for the normal sentence an intonation pattern in which the final elements in the sentence were accompanied by low pitch.

NOTE 2. Lehman supports this assumption by noting that a distinctive suprasegmental was used in Vedic to distinguish a contrasting feature, interrogation or request (Wackernagel 1896). This marker, called pluti by native grammarians, consisted of extra length, as in ágnā3i ‘O fire’ (3 indicates extra length). But a more direct contrast with the intonation of simple sentences may be exemplified by the accentuation of subordinate clauses. These have accented verbs, as in the following line from the Rigveda: antáś ca prgā áditir bhavāsi, ‘If you have entered inside, you will be Aditi’. As the pitch accent on ágā indicates, verbs in subordinate clauses maintained high pitch, in contrast with verbs of independent clauses like bhavāsi. We may conclude that this high pitch was an element in an intonation pattern which indicated incompleteness, somewhat like the pattern of contemporary English.

Evidence from other dialects supports the conclusion that, in late PIE, Declarative sentences were indicated by means of an intonation pattern with a drop in accentuation at the end of the clause.

NOTE. In Germanic verse, verbs of unmarked declarative sentences tend to occupy unaccented positions in the line, notably the final position (Lehmann 1956). Although the surface expression of accentuation patterns in Germanic is stress, rather than the pitch of Vedic and PIE, the coincidence of accentuation pattern supports our conclusions concerning PIE intonation.

9.3.2. Interrogative Sentences

The Interrogation was apparently also indicated by means of Intonation, for some questions in our early texts have no surface segmental indication distinguishing them from statements, for example, Plautus Aulularia 213, aetatem meam scis, ‘Do you know my age?’

NOTE. Only the context indicates to us that this utterance was a question; we may assume that the spoken form included means of expressing Int., and in view of expressions in the later dialects we can only conclude that these means were an intonation pattern.

Questions are generally classified into two groups:

A. Those framed to obtain clarification (Verdeutlichungsfragen), and

B. Those framed to obtain confirmation (Bestätigungsfragen). This feature accompanies statements in which a speaker sets out to elicit information from the hearer.

NOTE. It may be indicated by an intonation pattern, as noted above, or by an affix or a particle, or by characteristic patterns of order, as in German Ist er da? ‘Is he here?’ When the Interrogative sentence is so expressed, the surface marker commonly occupies second position among the question elements, if the entire clause is questioned. Such means of expression for Int. are found in IE languages, as Lat. -ne, which, according to Minton Warren “occurs about 1100 times in Plautus and over 40 times in Terence” (1881). Besides expressions like Lat. egone ‘Me?’, sentences like the following occur (Plautus Asinaria 884): Aúdin quid ait? Artemona: Aúdio. ‘Did you hear what he is saying? Artemona: yes’

Other evidence for a postponed particle for expressing Int. is found in Avestan, in which -na is suffixed to some interrogatives, as in Av. kas-nā ‘who (then)?’; and in Germanic, where na is found finally in some questions in Old High German. Old Church Slavic is more consistent in the use of such a particle than are these dialects, as in chošteši li ‘Do you wish to?’ This particle is also used in contemporary Russian.

The particle used to express Interrogation in Latin, Avestan, and Germanic is homophonous with the particle for expressing negation, PIE ne.

NOTE. It is not unlikely that PIE ne of questions is the same particle as that used for the negative. As the interrogative particle, however, it has been lost in most dialects. After Lehman (1974), its loss is one of the indications that late PIE was not a consistent OV language. After Mendoza, the fact that such Interrogatives of a yes/no-answer are introduced by different particles in the oldest attested dialects means that no single particle was generalized by Late PIE; cf. Goth. u, Lat. -ne, nonne, num Gk. ἣ, νὐ , Skr. nu, Sla. li. However, the common findings of Hittite, Indo-Iranian, Germanic and Latin are similar if not the same. In any case, for most linguists, rather than a postposed particle, 1) Intonation was used to express the Interrogatives, as well as 2) Particles that were placed early in clauses, often Initially.

The partial Interrogative sentences are those which expect an aclaratory answer; they are introduced in PIE by pronominal or adverbial forms derived from interrogative qi/qo, always placed initially but for marked sentences, where a change in position is admited to emphasize it.

NOTE. In some languages, Interrogatives may be strengthened by the addition of posposed particles with interrogative sense, as in Av. kaš-na. Such forms introduce indirect interrogatives when they ask about a part of the sentence. Indirect interrogatives in the form of Total interrogatives (i.e., not of yes/no-answer) are introduces by particles derived from direct interrogative particles (when there are) or by conditional conjunctions; as Hitt. man.

9.3.3. Negative Sentences

Indications of Negation, by which the speaker negates the verbal means of expression, commonly occupies third position in the hierarchy of sentence elements.

We can only posit the particles ne and mē, neither of which is normally postposed after verbs.

NOTE 1. For prohibitive particle mē, compare Gk. μή, O.Ind.,Av.,O.Pers. mā, Toch. mar/mā, Arm. mi, Alb. mos. In other IE dialects it was substituted by nē, cf. Goth. ne, Lat. nē (also as modal negation), Ira. ni. It is not clear whether Hitt. lē is ultimately derived from mē or nē. PIE ne is found as Goth.,O.H.G. ni, Lat. nĕ- (e.g. in nequis) O.Ind. ná, O.Sla. ne, etc. Sometimes it is found in lengthened or strengthened forms as Hitt. natta, Lat. non, Skr. ned, etc. A common PIE lengthened form is nei, which appears in Lat. ni, Lith. neî, Sla. ni, etc., and which may also ultimately be related to Proto-Uralic negative *ei- (Kortlandt, v.s.).

NOTE 2. In the oldest languages, negation seems to have been preverbal; Vedic nákis, Gk. oú tis, mḗ tis, Lat. nēmo, OHG nioman ‘no one’, and so on. The negative element ne was not used in compounding in PIE (Brugmann 1904); ṇ- had this function. Moreover, there is evidence for proposing that other particles were placed postverbally in PIE (Delbrück 1897). Delbrück has classified these in a special group, which he labels particles. They have been maintained postpositively primarily in frozen expressions: ē in Gk. egṓnē, ge in égōge ‘I’ (Schwyzer 1939). But they are also frequent in Vedic and early Greek; Delbrück (1897) discusses at length the use of Skt. gha, Gk. ge, and Skt. sma, Gk. mén, after pronouns, nouns, particles, and verbs, cf. Lat. nōlo < ne volo, Goth. nist< ni ist, and also, negative forms of the indefinite pronoun as O.Ind. m-kis, ná-kis, Lat. ne-quis, etc. which may indicate an old initial absolute position, which could be also supported by the development of corrleative forms like Lat. neque, etc., which combine negation and coordination. Lehman, on the contrary, believes in an older posposed order, characteristic of OV languages (i.e. a situation in IE II), because of the usually attributed value of emphasis to the initial position of negation, postverbal negation examples (even absolute final position in Hittite and Greek), the old existence of the form nei, as well as innovative forms like Lat. ne-quis or Gk. oú-tis.

NOTE 3. In Modern Indo-European, thus, negation should usually be preverbal, as in modern Romance languages (cf. Fr. n’est, Spa. no es, etc.), but it can be postponed in emphatic contexts, as it is usual in modern Germanic languages (cf. Eng. is not, Ger. ist nicht, etc.), as well as in very formal texts, thus imitating some of the most archaic findings of early PIE dialects.

9.4. Nominal Modifiers

9.4.1. Adjective and Genitive Constructions

1. Proto-Indo-European Attributive Adjectives were normally preposed.

NOTE. Delbrück summarizes the findings for Vedic, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, and Germanic, giving examples like the following from Vedic: śvetḥ párvatāḥ, ‘white mountains’ (1900). Lehman (1974) adds an example of Hitt. šuppi watar, ‘pure water’.

In marked constructions Adjectives might be postposed, as in áśvaḥ śvetáḥ, ‘a white horse, a gray’.

2. The position of the Attributive Genitive is the same as that of the Attributive Adjective.

NOTE. A striking example is given from the Old English legal language (Delbrück 1900): ōðres mannes hūses dura, ‘the door of the house of the other man’.

Like the adjective construction, the attributive-genitive construction may have the modifier postposed for marked effect, as is sómasya in SB 3.9.4.15 (Delbrück 1878): kíṃ nas tátaḥ syād íti? prathamabhakṣsá evá sómasyar jña íti, ‘What might then happen for us?’ ‘The first enjoyment of [Prince] Soma’.

NOTE 1. The relatively frequent marked use of the genitive may be the cause for the apparently free position of the genitive in Greek and Latin. The ambivalent order may also have resulted from the change of these languages toward a VO order. But, as Delbrück indicates, the preposed order is well attested in the majority of dialects. This order is also characteristic of Hittite (J. Friedrich 1960). We may therefore assume it for PIE.

NOTE 2. In accordance with Lehman’s views on syntactic structure, the attributive genitive, like the attributive adjective, must be derived from an embedded sentence. The sentence would have a noun phrase equivalent with that in the matrix sentence and would be a predicate nominal sentence. Such independent sentences are attested in the older dialects. Delbrück gives a number of examples, among them: aṣṭaú ha vaí putr ádites, ‘Aditi had eight sons’. áhar devnām sīt, ‘Day belonged to the gods’. These sentences accordingly illustrate that the genitive was used in predicate nominative sentences to convey what Calvert Watkins has labeled its primary syntactic function: the sense “of belonging”. When such a sentence was embedded in another with an equivalent NP, the NP was deleted, and the typical genitive construction resulted. Hittite also uses s as a genitive as well as a nominative marker. For “genitives” like haššannaššaš ‘(one) of his race’ can be further inflected, as in the accusative haššannaš-šan ‘(to one) of his race’ (J. Friedrich).

9.4.2. Compounds.

1. In the derivation of compounds special compounding rules apply.

The verbal compounds in a language observe the basic order patterns, For PIE we would expect an older OV order in compounds, as e.g. Skt. agnídh- ‘priest’ < agni ‘fire’ + idh ‘kindle.’

NOTE. A direct relationship between compounds and basic syntactic patterns is found only when the compounds are primary and productive. After a specific type of compound becomes established in a language, further compounds may be constructed on the basis of analogy, for example Gk. híppagros ‘wild horse’, in contrast with the standard productive Greek compounds in which the adjectival element precedes the modified, as in agriókhoiros ‘wild swine’ (Risch 1944-1949). Here we will consider the primary and productive kinds of compounds in PIE.

2. Two large classes and other minor types are found:

A. the Synthetics (noun+noun), which make up the majority of the PIE compounds,

a. Pure Synthetics, i.e. noun+noun.

b. Sinthetics in which the first element is adverbial, i.e. adverb+noun.

B. The Bahuvrihis.

C. Adjective + Nouns, apparently not so productive in PIE as in its dialects.

D. A small number of additive compounds.

Synthetics

Synthetics consist of a nominal element preceding a verbal, in their unmarked forms, as in Skt. agnídh-, ‘priest’. As in this compound, the relation of the nominal element to the verbal is that of target.

The particular relationship of nominal and verbal elements was determined by the lexical properties of the verb; accordingly, the primary relationship for most PIE verbs was that of target. But other nominal categories could also be used with verbs.

3. Kinds of Relationships:

1) The Receptor relationship, as Skr. devahéḍana, ‘angering the gods’.

2) The Instrument or Means relationship; as Skr. ádrijūta, ‘speeded by the stones’,

The compound ṛtajā of this passage may illustrate the Time relationship.

3) The Source relationship, as Skr. aṅhomúc, ‘freeing from trouble’.

4) The Place relationship, as Skr. druṣád, ‘sitting in a tree’.

5) The Manner relationship; as, Skr. īśānakŕt, ‘acting like a ruler’.

These compounds exhibit the various relationships of nominal constituents with verbal elements, as in Skr. tv-datta, ‘given by you’.

NOTE. Synthetics attested in the Rigveda accordingly illustrate all the nominal relationships determinable from sentences. Synthetics are frequently comparable to relative constructions, as in the following sentence: gnír agāmi bhrato vṛtrah purucétaṇaḥ, ‘Agni, the god of the Bharatas, was approached, he who killed Vṛtra, who is seen by many’.

Besides the large number of synthetics of the NV pattern, others are attested with the pattern VN. These are largely names and epithets, such as púṣṭi-gu, a name meaning ‘one who raises cattle’ (RV 8.51.1.), and sanád-rayi ‘dispensing riches’.

Bahuvrihis

The second large group of PIE compounds, Bahuvrihis, are derived in accordance with the sentence pattern expressing Possession. This pattern is well known from the Latin mihi est construction (Bennett 1914; Brugmann 1911): nulli est homini perpetuom bonum, “No man has perpetual blessings”.

Lehman accounts for the derivation of bahuvrihis, like Lat. magnanimus ‘great-hearted’, by assuming that an equational sentence with a noun phrase as subject and a noun in the receptor category indicating possession is embedded with an equivalent noun, as in the following example (‘great spirit is to man’ = ‘the man has great spirit’):

On deletion of the equivalent NP (homini) in the embedded sentence, a bahuvrihi compound magnanimus ‘greathearted’ is generated. This pattern of compounding ceased to be primary and productive when the dialects developed verbal patterns for expressing possession, such as Lat. habeo ‘I have’.

Bahuvrihis may be adjectival in use, or nominal, as in the vocative use of sūnari ‘having good strength’ (made up of su ‘good’ and *xner- ‘(magical) strength’) in Slr. víśvasya hí prṇanaṃ jvanaṁ tvé, ví yid uchási sūnari, ‘For the breath and life of everything is in you, when you light up the skies, you who have good strength’. The Greek cognate may illustrate the adjectival use: phéron d’ euḗnora khalkón ‘They carried on board the bronze of good strength’. The bahuvrihis are accordingly similar to synthetics in being comparable to relative clauses.

NOTE. Although the bahuvrihis were no longer primary and productive in the later dialects, their pattern remained remarkably persistent, as we may note from the various philo- compounds in Greek, such as philósophos, ‘one who holds wisdom dear’, phíloinos, ‘one who likes wine’, and many more. Apart from the loss of the underlying syntactic pattern, the introduction of different accentual patterns removed the basis for bahuvrihis. As Risch pointed out, Greek eupátōr could either be a bahuvrihi ‘having a good father’ or a tatpurusha ‘a noble father’. In the period before the position of the accent was determined by the quantity of final syllables, the bahuvrihi would have had the accent on the prior syllable, like rja-putra ‘having kings as sons’, RV 2.27.7, in contrast with the tatpurusha rja-putrá ‘king’s son’, RV 10.40.3. The bahuvrihis in time, then, were far less frequent than tatpurushas, of which only a few are to be posited for late PIE. An example is Gk. propátōr ‘forefather’. If the disputed etymology of Latin proprius ‘own’ is accepted, *pro-p(a)triós ‘from the forefathers’, there is evidence for assuming a PIE etymon; Wackernagel (1905) derives Sanskrit compounds like prá-pada ‘tip of foot’ from PIE. Yet the small number of such compounds in the early dialects indicates that they were formed in the late stage of PIE (Risch).

NOTE 2. Dvandvas, such as índrāviṣ́ṇu and a few other patterns, like the teens, were not highly productive in PIE, if they are to be assumed at all. Their lack of productiveness may reflect poorly developed coordination constructions in PIE (Lehmann 1969). Besides the expansion of tatpurushas and dvandvas in the dialects, we must note also the use of expanded root forms. Thematic forms of noun stems and derived forms of verbal roots are used, as in Skt. deva-kṛta, ‘made by the gods’. Such extended constituents become more and more prominent and eventually are characteristic elements of compounds, as the connecting vowel -o- in Greek and in early Germanic; Gk. Apolló-dōros ‘gift of Apollo’ (an n- stem) and Goth. guma-kunds ‘of male sex’ (also an n- stem). Yet the relationships between the constituents remain unchanged by such morphological innovations. The large number of tatpurushas in the dialects reflects the prominence of embedded-modifier constructions, as the earlier synthetics and bahuvrihis reflected the embedding of sentences, often to empty noun nodes. As noted above, they accordingly have given us valuable information about PIE sentence types and their internal relationships.

9.4.3. Determiners in Nominal Phrases.

Nouns are generally unaccompanied by modifiers, as characteristic passages from an Archaic hymn of the Rigveda and from an Old Hittite text may indicate.

Demonstratives are infrequent; nouns which might be considered definite have no accompanying determinative marker unless they are to be stressed. The Demonstrative then precedes.

The relationship between such Demonstratives and accompanying Nouns has been assumed to be Appositional; it may be preferable to label the relationship a loose one, as of pronoun or noun plus noun, rather than adjective or article plus noun.

NOTE. In Homer too the “article” is generally an anaphoric pronoun, differing from demonstratives by its lack of deictic meaning referring to location (Munro). Nominal phrases as found in Classical Greek or in later dialects are subsequent developments; the relationship between syntactic elements related by congruence, such as adjectives, or even by case, such as genitives, can often be taken as similar to an appositional relationship (Meillet 1937).

To illustrate nominal phrases, cf. Vedic eṣām marútām, “of-them of-Maruts”. The nominal phrase which may seem to consist of a demonstrative preceding a noun, eṣām marútām, is divided by the end of the line; accordingly eṣām must be interpreted as pronominal rather than adjectival.

The following Hittite passage from a ritual illustrates a similar asyndetic relationship between the elements of nominal phrases (Otten and Souček 1969): harkanzi- ma –an ^dHantašepeš anduhšaš harša[(r)] –a ^gišŠUKUR^hi.a , But the Hantašepa-gods hold heads of men as well as lances. In this sentence the nouns for ‘heads’ and ‘lances’ supplement ‘it’. Moreover, while the meaning of the last word is uncertain, its relationship to the preceding elements is imprecise, for it is a nominative plural, not an accusative. Virtually any line of Homer might be cited to illustrate the absence of close relationships between the members of nominal phrases; cf. Odyssey nēȗs dé moi hḗd’ héstēken ep’ agroȗ nósphi pólēos, en liméni Rheíthrōi hupò Nēíōi hulḗenti, ‘My ship is berthed yonder in the country away from the city, in a harbor called Rheithron below Neion, which is wooded’. The nouns have no determiners even when, like nēus, they are definite; and the modifiers with liméni and Neíoi seem to be loosely related epithets rather than closely linked descriptive adjectives.

The conclusions about the lack of closely related nominal phrases may be supported by the status of compounds in PIE. The compounds consisting of Descriptive Adjectives + Noun are later; the most productive are reduced verbal rather than nominal constructions. And the bahuvrihis, which indicate a descriptive relationship between the first element and the second, support the conclusion that the relationship is relatively general; rājá-putra, for example, means ‘having sons who are kings’ rather than ‘having royal sons’; gó-vapus means ‘having a shape like a cow’, said of rainclouds, for which the epithet denotes the fructifying quality rather than the physical shape.

Accordingly, closely related nominal expressions are to be assumed only for the dialects, not for PIE. Definiteness was not indicated for nouns. The primary relationship between nominal elements, whether nouns or adjectives, was appositional.

The syntactic patterns assumed for late PIE may be illustrated by narrative passages from the early dialects. The following passage tells of King Hariśchandra, who has been childless but has a son after promising Varuna that he will sacrifice any son to him. After the birth of the son, however, the king asks Varuna to put off the time of the sacrifice, until finally the son escapes to the forest; a few lines suffice to illustrate the simple syntactic patterns.

AB 7.14.

athainam	uvāca	varuṇaṁ	rājānam	upadhāva	putro
then-him	he-told	Varuna	king	you-go-to	son
Acc. sg.	Perf. 3 sg.	Acc. sg.	Acc. sg.	Imper. 2 sg.	Nom. sg.

me	jāyatāṁ	tena	tvā	yajā
to-me	let-him-be-born	with-him	you	I-worship
	Imper. 3 sg.	Inst. sg.	Acc. sg.	Mid. Pres.

iti.	tatheti.	sa	varuṇaṁ
end-quotation	indeed-end quotation	‘he’	Varuna
	(<tathā iti)	3 sg. Nom.

rājānam	upasasāra	putro	me	jāyatāṁ	tena
king	went-to	son	to-me	let-him-be-born	with-him
	Perf. 3 sg.

tvā	yajā	iti.	tatheti.
you	I-worship	end-quotation	indeed-end-quotation

tasya	ha	putro	jajñe	rohito	nāma.
his, of-him	now	son	he-was-born	Rohita	name
Gen. sg. m.	Ptc.		Mid. Perf. 3 sg.

taṁ	hovācājani	te	vai	putro
him	Ptc.-he-told-he-was born	to-you	indeed	son
Acc. sg.	Aor. Pass. 3 sg. Ptc.		Ptc.

yajasva	māneneti.	sa
you-worship	me-with-him-end-quotation	‘he’
Mid. Imper. 2 sg.	Acc. sg.-Inst. sg.

hovāca	yadā	vai	paśur	nirdaśo
Ptc.-he-told	when	indeed	animal	above-ten
	Conj.	Ptc.	Nom. sg. m.	Nom. sg. m.

bhavatyatha	sa	medhyo	bhavati.	nirdaśo
he-becomes-then	he	strong	he-becomes	above-ten
Pres. 3 sg.-Ptc.		Nom. sg. m.

‘nvastvatha	tvā	yajā	iti.
Ptc.-let-him-be-then	you	I-worship	end-quotation
Imper. 2 sg.	Acc. sg.

tatheti.	sa	ha	nirdaśa	āsa
indeed-end-quotation	he	now	above-ten	he-was
				Perf. 3 sg.

Then he [the Rishi Narada] told him [Hariśchandra]: “Go to King Varuna. [Tell him]: ‘Let a son be born to me. With him I will worship you [= I will sacrifice him to you] .’”

“Fine,” [he said].

He went to King Varuna [saying]: “Let a son be born to me. I will sacrifice him to you.”

“Fine,” [he said]

Now his son was born. Rohita [was his] name.

[Varuna] spoke to him. “A son has indeed been born to you. Sacrifice him to me.”

He said thereupon: “When an animal gets to be ten [days old], then he becomes strong [= fit for sacrifice]. Let him be ten days old; then I will worship you.”

“Fine,” he said.

He now became ten.

As this passage illustrates, nouns have few modifiers. Even the sequence: tasya ha putro, which might be interpreted as a nominal phrase corresponding to ‘his son’, consists of distinct components, and these should be taken as meaning: “Of him a son [was born]”. As in the poetic passage cited above, nouns and pronouns are individual items in the sentence and when accompanied by modifiers have only a loose relationship with them, as to epithets.

9.4.4. Apposition

Apposition is traditionally “when paratactically joined forms are grammatically, but not in meaning, equivalent”.

NOTE. Because of the relationship between nouns and modifiers, and also because subjects of verbs were only explicit expressions for the subjective elements in verb forms, Meillet (1937) considered apposition a basic characteristic of Indo-European syntax. As in the previous passage, subjects were included only when a specific meaning was to be expressed, such as putra ‘son’. The element sa may still be taken as an introductory particle, a sentence connective, much as iti of tathā iti, etc., is a sentence-final particle. And the only contiguous nouns in the same case, varunam rājānam, are clearly appositional.

A distinction is made between Appositional and Attributive (Delbrück); an appositional relationship between two or more words is not indicated by any formal expression, whereas an attributive relationship generally is.

NOTE. Thus the relationships in the following line of the Odyssey are attributive: arnúmenos hḗn te psukhḗn kaì nóston hetaírōn, lit. “striving-for his Ptc. life and return of-companions”. The relationship between hḗn and psukhḗn is indicated by the concordance in endings; that between nóston and hetaírōn by the genitive. On the other hand the relationship between the two vocatives in the following line is appositional, because there is no mark indicating the relationship: tȏn hamóthen ge, theá, thúgater Diós, eipè kaì hēmȋn, ‘Tell us of these things, beginning at any point you like, goddess, daughter of Zeus’. Both vocatives can be taken independently, as can any appositional elements.

Asyndetic constructions which are not appositive are frequently attested, as Skr. té vo hṛdé mánase santu yajñ, ‘These sacrifices should be in accordance with your heart, your mind’. Coordinate as well as appositive constructions could thus be without a specific coordinating marker.

Comparable to appositional constructions are titles, for, like appositions, the two or more nouns involved refer to one person.

NOTE. In OV languages titles are postposed in contrast with the preposing in VO languages; compare Japanese Tanaka-san with Mr. Middlefield. The title ‘king’ with Varuna and similarly in the Odyssey, Poseidáōni ánakti, when ánaks is used as a title. But, as Lehman himself admits, even in the early texts, titles often precede names, in keeping with the change toward a VO structure.

Appositions normally follow, when nouns and noun groups are contiguous, as in the frequent descriptive epithets of Homer: Tòn d’ ēmeíbet’ épeita theá, glaukȏpis Athḗnē, ‘Him then answered the goddess, owl-eyed Athene’.

To indicate a marked relationship, however, they may precede (Schwyzer 1950). But the early PIE position is clear from the cognates: Skt. dyaus pitā, Gk. Zeȗ páter, Lat. Jūpiter.

9. 5. Modified forms of PIE Simple Sentences

9.5.1. Coordination.

While coordination is prominent in the earliest texts, it is generally implicit.

The oldest surviving texts consist largely of paratactic sentences, often with no connecting particles.

New sentences may be introduced with particles, or relationships may be indicated with pronominal elements; but these are fewer than in subsequent texts.

Similar patterns of paratactic sentences are found in Hittite, with no overt marker of coordination or of subordination. J. Friedrich states that “purpose and result” clauses are not found in Hittite (1960), but that coordinate sentences are simply arranged side by side with the particle nu, as in the Hittite Laws. Conditional relationships too are found in Hittite with no indication of subordination (J. Friedrich 1960).

NOTE. The subordinate relationships that are indicated, however, have elements that are related to relative particles. Accordingly the subordination found in the early dialects is a type of relative construction. As such examples and these references indicate, no characteristic patterns of order, or of verb forms, distinguish subordinate from coordinate clauses in PIE and the early dialects. Hermann therefore concluded in his celebrated article that there were no subordinate clauses in PIE (1895). For Lehman (1974), the paratactic arrangement which he assumed for PIE, however, is characteristic of OV languages. Hypotaxis in OV languages is often expressed by nonfinite verb forms and by postposed particles.

The arrangement of sentences in sequence is a typical pattern of PIE syntax, whether for hypotactic or for paratactic relationships.

Expressions for coordination were used largely for elements within clauses and sentences. When used to link sentences, conjunctions were often accompanied by initial particles indicating the beginning of a new clause and also indicating a variety of possible relationships with neighboring clauses.

NOTE. Sentence-connecting particles are, however, infrequent in Vedic and relatively infrequent in the earliest Hittite texts; Lehman concludes that formal markers of sentence coordination were not mandatory in PIE.

The normal coordinating particle in most of the dialects is a reflex of PIE -qe.

This is postposed to the second of two conjoined elements, or to both.

NOTE. Hittite -a, -i̯a is used similarly, as in attaš annaš a ‘father and mother’ (J. Friedrich 1960).

The disjunctive particle PIE -w is also postposed

NOTE 1. In Hittite, however, besides the postposed disjunctive particles -ku ... -ku ‘or’, there was the disjunctive particle našma, which stood between nouns rather than after the last. This pattern of conjunction placement came to be increasingly frequent in the dialects; it indicates that the conjunction patterns of VO structure have come to be typical already by IE II.

NOTE 2. With the change in coordinating constructions, new particles were introduced; some of these, for example, Lat. et, Goth. jah, OE and, have a generally accepted etymology; others, like Gk. kaí, are obscure in etymology. Syntactically the shift in the construction rather than the source of the particles is of primary interest, though, as noted above, the introduction of new markers for the new VO patterns provides welcome lexical evidence of a shift. The syntactic shift also brought with it patterns of coordination reduction (Ersparung) which have been well described for some dialects (Behaghel). Such constructions are notable especially in SVO languages, in which sequences with equivalent verbs (S, V, O, Conj., S₂, V₁, O₂) delete the second occurrence of the verb , as M.H.G. daz einer einez will und ein ander ein anderz, ‘that one one-thing wants and another an other’.

Reduction of equivalent nouns in either S or O position is also standard, as in Beowulf.

NOTE. But in the paratactic structures characteristic of Hittite, such reduction is often avoided. In an SVO language the second memii̯as would probably not have been explicitly stated, as in: ‘now my speech came to be halting and was uttered slowly’. The lack of such reduction, often a characteristic of OV languages, gives an impression of paratactic syntax. Another pattern seeming to be paratactic is the preposing of “subordinate clauses,” either with no mark of subordination or with a kind of relative particle, as in the concluding passage of Muršilis Sprachlähmung (Götze and Pedersen 1934). The second from last clause has no mark to indicate subordination; the earlier clauses contain a form of relative particle.

IŠTU	^GIŠBANŠUR-ma-za-kán	kuizza	azikinun
from	table-but-Refl.-Ptc.	from-which	I-was-accustomed-to-eat

IŠTU	GAL-i̯a-kán	kuizza	akkuškinun
from	beaker-and-Ptc.	from-which	I-was-accustomed-to-drink

šašti-i̯a-za-kán	ku̯edani	šeškeškinun	IŠTU
in-bed-and-Refl.-Ptc.	in-which	I-was-accustomed-to-sit	from

^URUDDU₁₀xA-ia-za-kán	kuizza	arreškinun
basin-and-Refl.-Ptc.	from-which	I-was-accustomed-to-wash

kuit-i̯a	imma	ÚNUTU	anda	u̯erii̯an	ešta	nu	UL
what-and	else	utensil	Adv.-Ptc.	mentioned	it-was	now	not

kuitki	dattat	IŠTU	DINGIR^LI	QATAMMA	SIxDI-at
any	it-was-taken	from	god	likewise	it-was-determined

‘The god also determined that nothing more should be used of the table from which I was accustomed to eat, of the beaker from which I was accustomed to drink, of the bed in which I was accustomed to sleep, of the basin in which I was accustomed to wash, and of whatever other article was mentioned’

In an SVO language like English, the principal clause, which stands last in Hittite, would be placed first. The interpretation of the preceding clause as a result clause is taken from Götze and Pedersen. The initial clauses contain relative particles which indicate the relationship to kuitki of the second-from-last clause; they also contain coordinating particles: a, i̯a. In this passage the clauses, whether coordinate or subordinate from our point of view, are simply arrayed in sequence. Each concludes with a finite verb which provides no evidence of hypotaxis. The sentence connectives which occur—repeated instances of a/ia—heighten the impression of coordination.

The absence in Hittite of verb forms – which are cognates of the Vedic and Greek optative and subjunctive – which came to be used largely to indicate subordination is highly consistent in its OV patterning, as such verb forms were not required.

Hittite however did not forego another device, which is used to indicate subordinate relationship in OV as well as VO languages, the so-called nonfinite verb forms. These are used for less explicit kinds of complementation, much the way relative constructions are used for more explicit kinds.

9.5.2. Complementation.

Compound sentences may result from the embedding of nominal modifiers.

NOTE. In VO languages embedded nominal modifiers follow nouns, whereas in OV languages they precede nouns. This observation has led to an understanding of the Hittite and the reconstructed PIE relative constructions. if we follow the standard assumption that in relative constructions a second sentence containing an NP equivalent to an NP in the matrix sentence is embedded in that matrix sentence, we may expect that either sentence may be modified. A sentence may also be embedded with a dummy noun; the verb forms of such embedded sentences are commonly expressed with nominal forms of the verb, variously called infinitives, supines, or participles. In OV languages these, as well as relative constructions, precede the verb of the matrix sentence.

An example with participles in the IE languages is Skr. vásānaḥ in the last lines of the following Strophic hymn: rúśad vásānaḥ sudṛśīkarūpaḥ, “brightly dressing-himself beautifully-hued”.

It may also have “a final or consequential sense”, as in the following Strophic hymn: tvám indra srávitav apás kaḥ, ‘You, O Indra, make the waters to flow.’ Also in the poetic texts such infinitives may follow the main verb, as in ábodhi hótā yajáthāya devn, lit. “he-woke-up priest for-sacrificing gods”, ‘The priest has awakened to sacrifice to the gods’.

NOTE. The postposed order may result from stylistic or poetic rearrangement; yet it is also a reflection of the shift to VO order, a shift which is reflected in the normal position for infinitives in the other IE dialects. In the Brahmanas still, infinitives normally stand directly before the verb, except in interrogative and negative sentences (Delbrück). On the basis of the Brahmanic order we may assume that in PIE nonfinite verbs used as complements to principal verbs preceded them in the sentence. Hittite provides examples of preposed complementary participles and infinitives to support this assumption (J. Friedrich). Participles were used particularly with har(k)- ‘have’ and eš- ‘be’, as in uerii̯an ešta ‘was mentioned’; the pattern is used to indicate state.

Infinitives

1. Infinitives could indicate result, with or without an object (J. Friedrich 1960): 1-aš 1-an kunanna lē šanhanzi, lit. “one one to-kill not he-tries”, i.e. ‘One should not try to kill another’.

2. Infinitives could be used to express purpose, as in the following example, which pairs an infinitive with a noun (J. Friedrich): tuk-ma kī uttar ŠÀ-ta šii̯anna išhiull-a ešdu, lit. “to-you-however this word in-heart for-laying instruction-and it-should-be”, i.e. ‘But for you this word should be for taking to heart and for instruction’.

3. The Infinitive could be loosely related to its object, as in examples cited by Friedrich, such as apāš-ma-mu harkanna šan(a)hta, lit. “he-however-me for-deteriorating he-sought”, i.e. ‘But he sought to destroy me’.

4. The complementary infinitive indicates the purpose of the action; as Friedrich points out, it is attached to the verb šanhta plus its object mu in a construction quite different from that in subsequent dialects.

NOTE. These uses are paralleled by uses in Vedic, as may be noted in the work of Macdonell (1916), from which some examples are taken in Lehman (1974). On the basis of such examples in Vedic and in Hittite, he assumes that infinitive constructions were used to indicate a variety of complements in PIE.

Hittite and Sanskrit also provide examples of Participles functioning appositionally or as adjectives indicating state (J. Friedrich 1960): ammuk-u̯ar-an akkantan IQ.BI, lit. to-me-Pte.-indicating-quotation-him dying he-described, i.e. ‘He told me that one had died.’

NOTE. This pattern had been noted by Delbrück for the Rigveda, with various examples (1900:327), as śiśīhí mā śiśayáṃ tvā śṛṇomi, ‘Strengthen me; I hear that you are strong.’ The adjective śiśayá ‘strengthening’ is an adjective derived from the same root as śiśīhí. Delbrück also noted that such “appositives” are indicated in Greek by means of clauses. Greek represents for Lehman accordingly a further stage in the development of the IE languages to a VO order. Yet Greek still maintained preposed participles having the same subject as does the principal verb, as in: tḕn mèn idṑn gḗthēse, lit. “it Ptc. seeing he-rejoiced”

This pattern permits the use of two verbs with only one indicating mood and person; the nonfinite verb takes these categories from the finite.

Participles were thus used in the older period for a great variety of relationships. though also without indicating some of the verbal categories.

Dependent clauses are more flexible in indicating such relationships, and more precise, especially when complementary participles and infinitives follow the principal verb.

9.5.3. Subordinate Clauses.

Indo-Europeanists have long recognized the relationship between the Subordinating Particles and the stem from which Relative Pronouns were derived in Indo-Iranian and Greek.

NOTE. Thus Delbrück has pointed out in detail how the neuter accusative form of PIE jo- was the basis of the conjunction jod in its various meanings: (1) Temporal, (2) Temporal-Causal, (3) Temporal-Conditional, (4) Purpose. He also recognized the source of conjunctional use in sentences like Skr. yáj jyathās tád áhar asya kme ‘ṅśóḥ pīyū́ṣam apibo giriṣṭhm, ‘On the day you were born you drank the mountain milk out of desire for the plant’.

1) Relative clauses must have stood Before the Main Clause originally and

2) The earliest type of subordinate jo- clauses must have been the Preposed Relative constructions.

NOTE. This conclusion from Vedic receives striking support from Hittite, for in it we find the same syntactic relationship between relative clauses and other subordinate clauses as is found in Vedic, Greek, and other early dialects. But the marker for both types of clauses differs. In Hittite it is based on IE qid rather than jod; thus, Hittite too uses the relative particle for indicating subordination. The remarkable parallelism between the syntactic constructions, though they have different surface markers, must be ascribed to typological reasons; we assume that Hittite as well as Indo-Aryan and Greek was developing a lexical marker to indicate subordination. As does yad in Vedic, Hitt. kuit signals a “loose” relationship between clauses which must be appropriately interpreted.

As J. Friedrich has stated (1960), kuit never stands initially in its clause. Sentences in which it is used are then scarcely more specifically interconnected than are conjoined sentences with no specific relating word, as in examples cited by Friedrich (ibid.): nu taškupāi nu URU-aš dapii̯anzi išdammašzi, lit. Ptc. you-shout Ptc. city whole it-hears, ‘Now cry out [so that] the whole city hears’. Like this example, both clauses in a kuit construction generally are introduced with nu (J. Friedrich 1960). We may assume that kuit became a subordinating particle when such connections were omitted, as in Friedrich’s example. These examples illustrate that both yád and kuit introduce causal clauses, though they do not contain indications of the origin of this use.

It is therefore generally believed that Subordinates originated in Relative sentences, as Vedic, Old Irish, Avestan and Old Persian illustrate. Proverbs and maxims are a particularly conservative field in all languages, and even etymologically there are two series which especially often; namely, qo-...to-, and jo-...to-.

NOTE 1. For IE qo-..to-, cf. Lat. cum...tum, qualis...talis, quam...tam, or Lith. kàs...tàs, kòks...tàs, kaîp...taîp, kíek...tíek, etc., and for jo-...to-, Ved. yás...sá tád, yáthā...táthā, yvat...tvat, Gk. oios...toios, ósos...tósos, O.Pers. haya (a compound from so+jo, with the same inverse compound as Lat. tamquam, from two correlatives), etc.

NOTE 2. For Haudry this correlative structure is the base for subordination in all Indo-European languages. Proto-Indo-European would therefore show an intermediate syntax between parataxis and hypotaxis, as the correlative structure is between a ‘loose’ syntax and a ‘locked’ one.

Lehman assumes that the use of Skr. yád, Hitt. kuit, and other relative particles to express a causal relationship arose from subordination of clauses introduced by them to an Ablative; cf. Skr. ácittī yát táva dhármā yuyopimá (lit. unknowing that, because your law, order we-have-disturbed), m nas tásmād énaso deva rīriṣaḥ (lit. not us because-of-that because-of-sin O-god you-harm), ‘Do not harm us, god, because of that sin [that] because unknowingly we have disturbed your law’.

As such relationships with ablatives expressing Cause were not specific, more precise particles or conjunctions came to be used. In Sanskrit the ablatival yasmāt specifies the meaning ‘because’.

Further, yad and yátra specify the meaning ‘when’. In Hittite, mān came to be used for temporal relationships, possibly after combined use with kuit; kuitman expressed a temporal relationship even in Late Hittite, corresponding to ‘while, until’, though mahhan has replaced mān (J. Friedrich 1960 gives further details). The conjunction mān itself specifies the meanings ‘if’ and ‘although’ in standard Hittite. In both Hittite and Vedic then, the “loose” relative-construction relationship between subordinate clauses and principal clauses is gradually replaced by special conjunctions for the various types of hypotactic relationship: Causal, Temporal, Conditional, Concessive.

Just as the Causal relationship developed from an Ablative modified by a Relative construction, so the Temporal and Conditional relationship developed from a clause modifying an underlying Time node.

The less differentiated and less precisely related subordinate clauses are often still evident, however, as in yád clauses of the Archaic hymn, Rigveda 1.167. For conciseness, only yád clauses will be cited here, with Hoffmann’s interpretation of each; the entire stanzas and their translations are given by Hoffmann (1967).

RV 1.167.5.	jóṣad	yád	īm	asuryā̀	sacádhyai
	she-desires	when	them	Asuryan	to-follow

‘when the Asuryan will desire to follow them’

RV 1.167.6.	arkó	yád	vo	maruto	havíṣmān
	song-of-praise	whenever, if	for-you	Maruts	accompanied-by-libations

‘if the song of praise accompanied by libations is designed for you, Maruts’

RV 1.167.7.

sácā	yád	īṃ	vṛ́ṣamaṇā	ahaṁyú
together	because	them	manly-minded	proud

sthirā́	cij	jánīr	váhate	subhāgā́ḥ
rigid	though	women	she-drives	well-favored

‘because the manly minded, proud, yet stubborn [Rodasi] brings along other favored women’

In these three stanzas yad introduces subordinate clauses with three different relationships: Temporal, Conditional, Causal. Such multiple uses of yad belong particularly to the archaic style; subsequently they are less frequent, being replaced by more specific conjunctions.

In addition to the greater specificity of subordinate relationship indicated by particles, the early, relatively free hypotactic constructions come to be modified by the dominant subjective quality of the principal verb. The effect may be illustrated by passages like the following from a Strophic hymn, in which the verb of the principal clause is an optative:

RV 1.38.4.

yád

yūyám

pṛṣnimātaro

if, when

you

having-Prsni-as-mother

[Maruts]

mártāsaḥ	syā́tana
mortals	you-would-be

stotā́	vo	amṛ́taḥ	syāt
singer	your	immortal	he-would-be

‘Your singer would be immortal if [= in a situation when] you Maruts were mortals.’ (That is, if our roles were reversed, and you were mortals, then you would wish me to be immortal.)

This passage illustrates how the use of the Optative in the principal clause brings about a Conditional relationship in the Subordinate clause (see also Delbrück 1900). Through its expression of uncertainty the Optative conveys a Conditional rather than a Temporal meaning in the yad clause.

NOTE. Lacking verb forms expressing uncertainty, Hittite indicates conditional relationships simply by means of Particles (J. Friedrich 1960). Although several particles are used in Hittite to indicate various types of conditional clauses—man ... mān for Contrary-to-Fact, takku and man for Simple Conditionals—Hittite did not develop the variety of patterns found in other dialects. These patterns, as well described in the handbooks, are brought about not only by differing particles but also by the uses of the various tense and mood forms. Constructions in the dialects which have developed farthest from those of PIE are those in which the tense, mood, or person is modified in accordance with rules based on the verb form of the principal clause. Such shifts are among the most far-reaching results of the subjective quality of the Indo-European verb (Delbrück 1900).

Differences between the constructions in the various dialects reflect the changes as well as the earlier situation. In Homer, statements may be reported with a shift of mood and person, as in:

	Odyssey 3.19.	líssesthai	dé	min	autós,	hópōs	nēmertéa	eípēi
		request	Ptc.	him	self	that	true-things	he-may-say

‘You yourself ask him so that he tells the truth.’

The form eípēi is a third-person aorist subjunctive. If the statement were in direct discourse, the verb would be eȋpe, second-person imperative, and the clause would read: eȋpe nēmertéa ‘tell the truth’. Such shifts in person and mood would not be expected in an OV language; in Vedic, for example, statements are repeated and indicated with a postposed iti. The shifts in the other dialects, as they changed more and more to VO structure, led to intricate expression of subordinate relationships, through shifts in person, in mood, and in tense, as well as through specific particles indicating the kind of subordination. The syntactic constructions of these dialects then came to differ considerably from that even in Vedic.

The earliest poems of the Vedas are transparent in syntax, as may be illustrated by Stanzas 9 and 10 of Hymn 1.167:

RV 1.167.9.

nahī́	nú	vo	maruto	ánty	asmé
never	Ptc.	your	Maruts	near	from-us

ārttāc	cic	chávaso	ántam	āpúḥ
from-far	or	of-strength	end	they-reached

té	dhṛṣṇúnā	śávasā	śuśuvṅsó
they	bold	power	strengthened

‘rṇo	ná	dvéṣo	dhṛṣatá	pári	ṣṭhuḥ
flood	like	enmity	bold	against	they-stand

‘Never have they reached the limit of your strength, Maruts, whether near or far from us. Strengthened by bold power they boldly oppose enmity like a flood.’

RV 1.167.10.

vayám	adyéndrasya	préṣṭhā	vayám
we	today-Indra’s	most-favored	we

śvó	vocemahi	samaryé
tomorrow	we-wish-to-be-called	in-battle

vayám	pur	máhi	ca	no	ánu	dyū́n
we	formerly	great	and	us	through	days

tán	na	ṛbhukṣ	narm	ánu	ṣyāt
that	us	chief	of-men	to	may-he-be

‘We today, we tomorrow, want to be called Indra’s favorites in battle. We were formerly. And great things will be for us through the days; may the chief of men give that to us’.

Although the hymn offers problems of interpretation because of religious and poetic difficulties, the syntax of these two stanzas is straightforward; the verbs in general are independent of one another, in this way indicating a succession of individual sentences. Such syntactic patterns, though more complicated than those of prose passages, lack the complexity of Classical Greek and Latin, or even Homeric Greek. These early Vedic texts, like those of Old Hittite, include many of the syntactic categories found in the dialects, but the patterns of order and relationship between clauses had already changed considerably from the OV patterns of Middle PIE.

9.6. Sintactic Categories

9.6.1. Particles as Syntactic Means of Expression

Noninflected words of various functions were used in indicating relationships between other words in the sentence or between sentences.

1. Some were used for modifying Nouns, often indicating the relationships of nouns to verbs. Although these were generally placed after nouns and accordingly were Postpositions, they have often been called Prepositions by reason of their function rather than their position with regard to nouns (Delbrück).

2. Others were used for modifying Verbs, often specifying more precisely the meanings of verbs; these then may be called Preverbs.

3. Others, commonly referred to as Sentence Connectives, were used primarily to indicate the relationships between Clauses or Sentences (Watkins 1964; Lehmann 1969).

9.6.1.1. Postpositions.

Postpositions in the various dialects are found with specific cases, in accordance with their meanings.

Yet in the Old Hittite texts, the Genitive rather than such a specific case is prominent with Postpositions derived from Nouns, such as piran ‘(in) front’ (Neu 1970):

kuiš	LUGAL-ua-aš	piran	ēšzi
who	king’s	front	he-sits
‘whoever sits before the king’

Such postpositions came to be frozen in form, whether unidentifiable as to etymology; derived from nouns, like piran; or derived from verbs, like Skr. tirás (viz. Lehman). Further, as the language came to be VO, they were placed before nouns.

As case forms were less clearly marked, they not only “governed” cases but also took over the meanings of case categories. The preposition tirás (tiró), derived from the root *tṛ- ‘cross’, illustrates both the etymological meaning of the form and its eventual development as preposition:

RV 8.82.9.

yáṃ	te	śyenáḥ	padbharat
what	for-you	eagle	with-foot-he-bore

tiró	rájāṅsy	áspṛtam
crossing, through	skies	not-relinquishing

píbéd [<píba íd]	asya	tvám	īśiṣe
you-drink-indeed	of-it	you	you-are-master (for-your-benefit)

‘What the eagle brought for you in his claws, not dropping it [as he flew] through the skies, of that drink. You control [it for your own benefit]’.

The syntactic use of such particles with nouns is accordingly clear.

9.6.1.2. Preverbs.

1. Rather than having the close relationships to nouns illustrated above, particles could instead be associated primarily with Verbs, often the same particles which were used as Postpositions.

2. Such combinations of particles and verbs came to be treated as units and are found repeatedly in specific uses (Delbrück 1888).

A. Preverbs might occupy various positions:

1. If unmarked, they are placed before the verb;

2. If marked, they are placed initially in clauses (Watkins 1964).

NOTE. In the course of time the Preverbs in unmarked position came to be combined with their verbs, though the identity of each element is long apparent in many of the dialects. Thus, in Modern German the primary accent is still maintained on some verbal roots, and in contrast with cognate nouns the prefix carries weak stress: erteílen ‘distribute’, Úrteil ‘judgment’. The steps toward the combination of preverb and verbal root have been described for the dialects, for example, Greek, in which uncombined forms as well as combined forms are attested during the period of our texts.

B. In the attested IE dialects:

a. Preverbs which remained uncombined came to be treated as Adverbs.

b. Combinations of Preverbs plus Verbs, on the other hand, eventually came to function like unitary elements.

The two different positions of preverbs in early texts led eventually to different word classes.

9.6.1.3. Sentence Particles.

1. Particles were also used to relate sentences and clauses (J. Friedrich 1959:18, § 11):

takku	LÚ.ULÙ^LU-an	EL.LUM	QA.AZ.ZU	našma	GÌR-ŠU	kuiški
if	man	free	his-hand	or	his-foot	someone

tuu̯arnizzi	nušše	20	GÍN	KUBABBAR	paai
he-breaks	Ptc.-to-him	20	shekels	silver	he-gives

‘If anyone breaks the hand or foot of a freeman, then he must give him twenty shekels of silver.’

Particles like the initial word in this example indicate the kind of clause that will follow and have long been well described. The function of particles like nu is not, however, equally clear.

NOTE. Dillon and Götze related nu and the use of sentence connectives to similar particles in Old Irish (Dillon 1947). Such particles introduce many sentences in Old Irish and have led to compound verb forms in this VSO language. Delbrück had also noted their presence in Vedic (1888)

Since introductory šu and ta were more frequent than was nu in the older Hittite texts, scholars assumed that sentences in IE were regularly introduced by these sentence connectives. And Sturtevant proposed, as etymology for the anaphoric pronoun, combinations of so- and to- with enclitic pronouns, as in the well-known Hittite sequence ta-at, cf. IE tod, and so on (see Otten and Souček 1969 for the use of such particles in one text).

It is clear that sentence connectives were used in Hittite to indicate continued treatment of a given topic (Raman 1973). It is also found with Hittite relative constructions, a function which may also be ascribed to Vedic sá and tád.

NOTE. For Lehman (1974), since this use may be accounted for through post-PIE influences, sentence connectives may have had a minor role in PIE.

2. Other particles, like Hitt. takku ‘if’, probably had their counterparts in PIE, even if the surface forms were completely unrelated. This is also true for Emphatic Particles like Skr. íd; they were used after nouns as well as imperatives. Such emphatic particles combined with imperatives suggest the presence of Interjections, which cannot usually be directly reconstructed for PIE but are well attested in the several dialects.

3. A coordinate sentence connective -qe can clearly be reconstructed on the basis of Goth. u(h), Skr. ca, Gk. te, Lat. que, and so on. But its primary function is the coordination of elements in the sentence rather than clauses or sentences.

NOTE. Moreover, when ca is used to connect verbs in the Vedic materials, they are parallel (Delbrück 1888); Delbrück finds only one possible exception. In an OV language the relating of successive verbs is carried out by means of nonfinite verbs placed before finite. We may then expect that coordinating particles had their primary use in PIE as connectors for sentence elements rather than for sentences.

Another such particle is -w ‘or’. Like -qe, the particle indicating disjunctive ‘or’ was postposed, in retention of the original pattern as late as Classical Latin.

4. Particles in PIE may also have corresponded to verbal qualifiers.

a. The most notable of these is mē, which carried a negative modal meaning.

b. There is indication of such uses of particles in other patterns, for example, of Vedic pur ‘earlier’ to indicate the past, as apparently Brugmann was the first to point out (Delbrück 1888), and also Vedic sma, to indicate repeated action in the past (Hoffmann 1967). It is curious that sma is also found after m in Vedic (Hoffmann 1967).

NOTE. Lehman suggested that such mood- and tense-carrying particles may have been transported from a postverbal to a preverbal position. Some particles may accordingly have been equivalent in an earlier stage of PIE to elements used after verbs to indicate verbal categories.

9.6.2. Marked Order in Sentences.

1. Elements in sentences can be emphasized, by Marking; the chief device for such emphasis is Initial Position.

Other sentence elements may also be placed in initial position for marking.

2. In unmarked position the preverb directly precedes the verb. Changes in normal order thus provide one of the devices for conveying emphasis.

Other devices have to do with Selection, notably particles which are postposed after a marked element.

3. Emphasis can also be indicated by lexical selection.

4. Presumably other modifications might also be made, as in Intonation.

The various syntactic devices accordingly provided means to introduce marking in sentences.

9.6.3. Topicalization with Reference to Emphasis.

Like emphasis, Topicalization is carried out by patterns of arrangement, but the arrangement is applied to coequal elements rather than elements which are moved from their normal order.

Topicalization by arrangement is well known in the study of the early languages, as in the initial lines of the Homeric poems. The Iliad begins with the noun mȇnin ‘wrath’, the Odyssey with the noun ándra ‘man’. These, to be sure, are the only possible nouns in the syntactically simple sentences opening both poems: mȇnin áeide ‘Sing of the wrath’ and ándra moi énnepe ‘Tell me of the man’. Yet the very arrangement of moi and other enclitics occupying second position in the sentence, in accordance with Wackernagel’s law, indicates the use of initial placement among nominal elements for topicalization.

The use of topicalization may be illustrated by a more complex set of sentences, such as the first address of Zeus in the Odyssey. Only the first lines of this will be quoted; but these indicate a shift in topic from the ‘gods’ to ‘men’, then to a particular man, Aegisthus, then to Agamemnon, and subsequently to Orestes (Lehman 1974).

Ȏ pópoi, hoȋon dḗnu theoùs brotoì aitióōntai; eks hēméōn gár phasi kák’ émmenai, hoi dè kaì autoì, sphȇisin atasthalíēisin hupèr móron álge’ ékhousin, hōs kaì nȗn Aígisthos hupèr móron Atreídao, gȇm’ álokhon mnēstḗn, tòn d’ éktane nostḗsanta,

‘Alas, how the mortals are now blaming the gods. For they say evils come from us, but they themselves have woes beyond what’s fated by their own stupidities. Thus Aegisthus beyond what was fated has now married the wedded wife of Agamemnon, and killed him on his return.’

As this passage and many others that might be cited illustrate, the basic sentence patterns could be rearranged by stylistic rules, both for emphasis and for topicalization. In this way the relatively strict arrangement of simple sentences could be modified to bring about variety and flexibility.

Appendix I: Indo-European in Use

I.1. Texts translated Into Modern Indo-European

These texts have been translated into PIE by Indo-Europeanist Fernando López-Menchero, and modified to fit the Modern Indo-European grammatical rules.

NOTE. Additions, corrections and deletions are listed and changed files published at <http://dnghu.org/en/indo-european-bible-translation/>.

I.1.1. Patér Ṇseré (Lord’s Prayer)

English	Latine	Ελληνικά	Eurōpáiom
Our Father, who art in heaven,	Pater noster, qui es in caelis:	Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς·	Patér Ṇseré, kémeloisi jos essi,
Hallowed be thy Name.	sanctificetur Nomen Tuum;	ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου·	Nōmṇ sqénetoru tewe.
Thy kingdom come.	adveniat Regnum Tuum;	ἐλθέτω ἡ βασιλεία σου·	Regnom cémietōd tewe.
Thy will be done,	fiat voluntas Tua,	γενηθήτω τὸ θέλημά σου,	dhidhḗtoru woliā Téwijā,
On earth as it is in heaven.	sicut in caelo, et in terra.	ὡς ἐν οὐρανῷ καὶ ἐπὶ γῆς·	ita kémelei jota pḷtéwijāi.
Give us this day our daily bread.	Panem nostrum cotidianum da nobis hodie;	τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν ἐπιούσιον δὸς ἡμῖν σήμερον·	Qāqodjūtenom bharsiom ṇseróm edjḗu dasdhi-nos
And forgive us our trespasses,	et dimitte nobis debita nostra,	καὶ ἄφες ἡμῖν τὰ ὀφειλήματα ἡμῶν,	joqe dháleglāms ṇserms parke,
As we forgive those who trespass against us.	Sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris;	ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς ἀφίεμεν τοῖς ὀφειλέταις ἡμῶν·	swāi skéletbhos prkomos.
And lead us not into temptation,	et ne nos inducas in tentationem;	καὶ μὴ εἰσενέγκῃς ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν,	Enim mē noms péritloi enke prōd,
But deliver us from evil. Amen	sed libera nos a Malo. Amen	ἀλλὰ ῥῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ. ἀμήν.	mō úpelēd nosēie nos. Estōd.

I.1.2. Slwēie Marija (Hail Mary)

English	Latine	Ελληνικά	Eurōpáiom
Hail Mary, full of grace,	Ave María, gratia plena,	Θεοτόκε Παρθένε, χαῖρε, κεχαριτωμένη Μαρία,	Sḷwēie Marija, crāti plēn tū,
the Lord is with thee;	Dominus tecum.	ὁ Κύριος μετὰ σοῦ.	Arjos twoio esti;
blessed art thou among women,	Benedicta tu in mulieribus,	εὐλογημένη σὺ ἐν γυναιξί,	súwoqnā cénāisi essi,
and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus.	et benedictus fructus ventris tui, Iesus.	εὐλογημένος ὁ καρπὸς τῆς κοιλίας σου, ὅτι Σωτήρα ἔτεκες τῶν ψυχῶν ἡμῶν	súwoqnos-qe úderosio two bhreugs estōd, Jēsus.
Holy Mary, Mother of God,	Sancta Maria, Mater Dei,		Noibha Marija, Déiwosio Mātér,
pray for us sinners,	ora pro nobis peccatoribus,		nosbhos ōrāie ágeswṇtbhos,
now and at the hour of our death. Amen.	nunc et in hora mortis nostrae. Amen.		nūqe mṛtios-qe nos daitei. Estōd.

I.1.3. Kréddhēmi (Nicene Creed)

English	Latine	Ελληνικά	Eurōpáiom
We believe in one God,	Credo in unum Deo,	Πιστεύομεν εἰς ἕνα Θεὸν	Oinom kréddhēmi Deiwom,
the Father Almighty,	Patrem omnipoténtem,	Πατέρα παντοκράτορα,	Paterṃ solwomághmonṃ,
Maker of heaven and earth,	factórem cæli et terræ,	ποιητὴν οὐρανοῦ καὶ γῆς,	djḗwepḷtéwīdhōtṃ,
and of all things visible and invisible.	visibílium ómnium et invisibílium;	ὁρατῶν τε πάντων και ἀοράτων.	dṛknim sólwosom ṇdṛknim-qe dhētṓr;
And in one Lord Jesus Christ,	Et in unum Dóminum Iesum Christum,	Και εἰς ἕνα κύριον Ἰησοῦν Χριστόν,	Arjom-qe Jēsum Ghristóm oinom,
the only-begotten Son of God,	Fílium Dei unigénitum,	τὸν υἱὸν τοῦ θεοῦ τὸν μονογενῆ,	Déiwosio Sūnúm oinógnātom,
begotten of the Father before all worlds (æons),	et ex Patre natum ante ómnia sæcula:	τὸν ἐκ τοῦ πατρὸς γεννηθέντα πρὸ πάντων τῶν αἰώνων,	Patros-jos gnātós aiwēd prāi solwēd,
Light of Light, very God of very God,	Deum de Deo, lumen de lúmine, Deum verum de Deo vero,	φῶς ἐκ φωτός, θεὸν ἀληθινὸν ἐκ θεοῦ ἀληθινοῦ,	Deiwos Deiwēd, leuksmṇ léuksmene, wērom Deiwom wērēd Deiwēd,
begotten, not made,	génitum non factum,	γεννηθέντα οὐ ποιηθέντα,	gentós, nē dhatos,
being of one substance with the Father;	consubstantiálem Patri,	ὁμοούσιον τῷ πατρί·	Patrei kómbhoutis,
by whom all things were made;	per quem ómnia facta sunt;	δι' οὗ τὰ πάντα ἐγένετο·	josōd solwa dhaktá senti;
who for us men, and for our salvation, came down from heaven,	qui propter nos hómines et propter nostram salútem descéndit de cælis;	τὸν δι' ἡμᾶς τοὺς ἀνθρώπους καὶ διὰ τὴν ἡμετέραν σωτηρίαν κατελθόντα	qos nosbhis rōdhí dhghómṇbhis kémelobhes kidét,
and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary, and was made man;	et incarnátus est de Spíritu Sancto ex María Vírgine et homo factus est;	ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν καὶ σαρκωθέντα ἐκ πνεύματος ἁγίου καὶ Μαρίας τῆς παρθένου καὶ ἐνανθρωπήσαντα,	enim memsom Noibhēd Anmēd Wéwṛtei Marijād eksí ándhesād, enim dhghomōn geneto;
he was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered, and was buried,	crucifíxus étiam pro nobis sub Póntio Piláto, passus et sepúltus est;	σταυρωθέντα τε ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ἐπὶ Ποντίου Πιλάτου, καὶ παθόντα καὶ ταφέντα,	eti krukídhētos nosbhis prōd Pontiei upo Pilatei, pastos sepēlitós-qe esti,
and the third day he rose again, according to the Scriptures, and ascended into heaven, and sitteth on the right hand of the Father;	et resurréxit tértia die secúndum Scriptúras; et ascéndit in cælum, sedet ad déxteram Patris;	καὶ ἀναστάντα τῇ τρίτῃ ἡμέρα κατὰ τὰς γραφάς, καὶ ἀνελθόντα εἰς τοὺς οὐρανοὺς, καὶ καθεζόμενον ἐκ δεξιῶν τοῦ πατρός	joqe ati tritiei stete djwí, skréibhmona ad kémelom-qe skānduós, Patrí déksijāi sedḗieti;
from thence he shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead;	et íterum ventúrus est cum glória iudicáre vivos et mórtuos;	καὶ πάλιν ἐρχόμενον μετὰ δόξης κρῖναι ζῶντας καὶ νεκρούς·	joqe dwonim kléwosē cemiest cīwóms mṛtoms-qe kómdhēnqos;
whose kingdom shall have no end.	cuius regni non erit finis;	οὗ τῆς βασιλείας οὐκ ἔσται τέλος.	qosio regnom nē antjom bhéwseti.
And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from the Father,	Et in Spíritum Sanctum, Dóminum et vivificántem: qui ex Patre Filióque procédit;	Καὶ εἰς τὸ Πνεῦμα τὸ Ἅγιον, τὸ κύριον, (καὶ) τὸ ζωοποιόν, τὸ ἐκ τοῦ πατρὸς ἐκπορευόμενον,	joqe Noibhom Anmom, potim ḗtrodhōtṃ-qe, Patre Sūnewe-qe proilóm,
who with the Father and the Son together is worshiped and glorified, who spake by the prophets.	qui cum Patre et Fílio simul adorátur et conglorificátur; qui locútus est per Prophétas;	τὸ σὺν πατρὶ καὶ υἱῷ συμπροσκυνούμενον καὶ συνδοξαζόμενον, τὸ λαλῆσαν διὰ τῶν προφητῶν.	qei Patrē Súnuwē-qe semli áidetor enim magtietor bhatos-jos próbhātṃs terqe esti.
In one holy catholic and apostolic Church;	Et in unam sanctam cathólicam et apostólicam Ecclésiam.	εἰς μίαν, ἁγίαν, καθολικὴν καὶ ἀποστολικὴν ἐκκλησίαν·	joqe oinām, noibhām, kṃtísolwām apostóleiām ékklētijām.
we acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins;	Confíteor unum baptísma in remissiónem peccatorum	ὁμολογοῦμεν ἓν βάπτισμα εἰς ἄφεσιν ἁμαρτιῶν·	Oinom bhatēiai agesupomoukom cadhmṇ;
we look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.	et exspecto resurrectionem mortuorum et vitam ventúri sæculi. Amen.	προσδοκοῦμεν ἀνάστασιν νεκρῶν, καὶ ζωὴν τοῦ μέλλοντος αἰῶνος. Ἀμήν.	saitlm-qe cejtām cémionqm. Estōd

I.1.4. Noudós sūnús (Parable of the Prodigal Son)

	English	Latine	Ελληνικά	Eurōpáiom
11	“A certain man had two sons.	Homo quidam habuit duos filios:	Ἄνθρωπός τις εἶχεν δύο υἱούς.	Dhghomōn enis sū́nuwe eiket.
12	And the younger of them said to his father, ‘Father, give me the portion of goods that falls to me.’ So he divided to them his livelihood.	et dixit adolescentior ex illis patri: Pater, da mihi portionem substantiæ, quæ me contingit. Et divisit illis substantiam.	καὶ εἶπεν ὁ νεώτερος αὐτῶν τῷ πατρί, Πάτερ, δός μοι τὸ ἐπιβάλλον μέρος τῆς οὐσίας. ὁ δὲ διεῖλεν αὐτοῖς τὸν βίον.	Joqe jowísteros patrei weuqét : Pater, rijós dasdhi moi aitim qāi meghei áineti, joqe rēim ibhom widhét.
13	And not many days after, the younger son gathered all together, journeyed to a far country, and there wasted his possessions with prodigal living.	Et non post multos dies, congregatis omnibus, adolescentior filius peregre profectus est in regionem longinquam, et ibi dissipavit substantiam suam vivendo luxuriose.	καὶ μετ' οὐ πολλὰς ἡμέρας συναγαγὼν πάντα ὁ νεώτερος υἱὸς ἀπεδήμησεν εἰς χώραν μακράν, καὶ ἐκεῖ διεσκόρπισεν τὴν οὐσίαν αὐτοῦ ζῶν ἀσώτως.	Enim nē péluwāms dināms pos, solwa garlós, jowísteros sūnús reu porsótenom oigheto londhom, idhei-qe rēim nudét sewe ghlóidotos ceiwents.
14	But when he had spent all, there arose a severe famine in that land, and he began to be in want.	Et postquam omnia consummasset, facta est fames valida in regione illa, et ipse cœpit egere.	δαπανήσαντος δὲ αὐτοῦ πάντα ἐγένετο λιμὸς ἰσχυρὰ κατὰ τὴν χώραν ἐκείνην, καὶ αὐτὸς ἤρξατο ὑστερεῖσθαι.	Enim ítāpo solwa cósissēt kom, dhṛghtós molét ghrēdhus londhei ólnosmei, joqe egētum sepe bhwije.
15	Then he went and joined himself to a citizen of that country, and he sent him into his fields to feed swine.	Et abiit, et adhæsit uni civium regionis illius: et misit illum in villam suam ut pasceret porcos.	καὶ πορευθεὶς ἐκολλήθη ἑνὶ τῶν πολιτῶν τῆς χώρας ἐκείνης, καὶ ἔπεμψεν αὐτὸν εἰς τοὺς ἀγροὺς αὐτοῦ βόσκειν χοίρους:	Itaqe cālós, qismei jugeto kéiwijom ólnosio lóndhī, im-qe sontiet porkoms pāsksi.
16	And he would gladly have filled his stomach with the pods that the swine ate, and no one gave him anything.	Et cupiebat implere ventrem suum de siliquis, quas porci manducabant: et nemo illi dabat.	καὶ ἐπεθύμει χορτασθῆναι ἐκ τῶν κερατίων ὧν ἤσθιον οἱ χοῖροι, καὶ οὐδεὶς ἐδίδου αὐτῷ.	Atqe úderom skaliqās plḗnātum gheríjeto porks edent-jams atqe neqis ismei dōt.
17	“But when he came to himself, he said, ‘How many of my father’s hired servants have bread enough and to spare, and I perish with hunger!	In se autem reversus, dixit: Quanti mercenarii in domo patris mei abundant panibus, ego autem hic fame pereo!	εἰς ἑαυτὸν δὲ ἐλθὼν ἔφη, Πόσοι μίσθιοι τοῦ πατρός μου περισσεύονται ἄρτων, ἐγὼ δὲ λιμῷ ὧδε ἀπόλλυμαι.	Swei poti wṛtomnós, egt: qotioi patrós domei mísdhotes paskns spréigonti, kei egṓ au dham mṛijai!
18	I will arise and go to my father, and will say to him, “Father, I have sinned against heaven and before you,	surgam, et ibo ad patrem meum, et dicam ei: Pater, peccavi in cælum, et coram te:	ἀναστὰς πορεύσομαι πρὸς τὸν πατέρα μου καὶ ἐρῶ αὐτῷ, Πάτερ, ἥμαρτον εἰς τὸν οὐρανὸν καὶ ἐνώπιόν σου,	arísomnos patérṃ eisō mene ad, joqe ismei seksō : Pater, kémelom proti tewom-qe antí memlai,
19	and I am no longer worthy to be called your son. Make me like one of your hired servants.”’	jam non sum dignus vocari filius tuus: fac me sicut unum de mercenariis tuis.	οὐκέτι εἰμὶ ἄξιος κληθῆναι υἱός σου: ποίησόν με ὡς ἕνα τῶν μισθίων σου.	jāmi nē deknos egṓ, sūnús téwijos kluwētum: dhasdhi-me swāi qimqim mísdhotom tewe.
20	“And he arose and came to his father. But when he was still a great way off, his father saw him and had compassion, and ran and fell on his neck and kissed him.	Et surgens venit ad patrem suum. Cum autem adhuc longe esset, vidit illum pater ipsius, et misericordia motus est, et accurrens cecidit super collum ejus, et osculatus est eum.	καὶ ἀναστὰς ἦλθεν πρὸς τὸν πατέρα ἑαυτοῦ. ἔτι δὲ αὐτοῦ μακρὰν ἀπέχοντος εἶδεν αὐτὸν ὁ πατὴρ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐσπλαγχνίσθη καὶ δραμὼν ἐπέπεσεν ἐπὶ τὸν τράχηλον αὐτοῦ καὶ κατεφίλησεν αὐτόν.	Ita aritós paterṃ ludhét sewe. Eti jom qeli bhūlo, em patḗr tósiope dṛket, joqe ana kṛsents kómqēilio krūtós esti enim qolsom petlós em bhusāiét.
21	And the son said to him, ‘Father, I have sinned against heaven and in your sight, and am no longer worthy to be called your son.’	Dixitque ei filius: Pater, peccavi in cælum, et coram te: jam non sum dignus vocari filius tuus.	εἶπεν δὲ ὁ υἱὸς αὐτῷ, Πάτερ, ἥμαρτον εἰς τὸν οὐρανὸν καὶ ἐνώπιόν σου, οὐκέτι εἰμὶ ἄξιος κληθῆναι υἱός σου.	Wedét óisosmōi sūnús: Pater, kémelom proti tewom-qe anti memlai: jāmi nē deknos egṓ, sūnús téwijos nōmnādhiom
22	“But the father said to his servants, ‘Bringout the best robe and put it on him, and put a ring on his hand and sandals on his feet.	Dixit autem pater ad servos suos: Cito proferte stolam primam, et induite illum, et date annulum in manum ejus, et calceamenta in pedes ejus:	εἶπεν δὲ ὁ πατὴρ πρὸς τοὺς δούλους αὐτοῦ, Ταχὺ ἐξενέγκατε στολὴν τὴν πρώτην καὶ ἐνδύσατε αὐτόν, καὶ δότε δακτύλιον εἰς τὴν χεῖρα αὐτοῦ καὶ ὑποδήματα εἰς τοὺς πόδας,	nū mísdhatbhos bhato patḗr sewe; bhersi: prismām dhrághete togām joqe tom westíjete, anom tosio ghéseni kerpioms-qe esio daste pedsí:
23	And bring the fatted calf here and kill it, and let us eat and be merry;	et adducite vitulum saginatum, et occidite, et manducemus, et epulemur:	καὶ φέρετε τὸν μόσχον τὸν σιτευτόν, θύσατε καὶ φαγόντες εὐφρανθῶμεν,	kom piwonṃ-qe bhérete loigom joqe chénete, joqe edāmos, joqe wḷdām terpāmos,
24	for this my son was dead and is alive again; he was lost and is found.’ And they began to be merry.	quia hic filius meus mortuus erat, et revixit: perierat, et inventus est. Et cœperunt epulari.	ὅτι οὗτος ὁ υἱός μου νεκρὸς ἦν καὶ ἀνέζησεν, ἦν ἀπολωλὼς καὶ εὑρέθη. καὶ ἤρξαντο εὐφραίνεσθαι.	jodqid kei sūnús mene dhedhuwós ēst atqe coje ati: skombnós est, atqe wṛētai. Enim wḷdām bhwijónt.
25	“Now his older son was in the field. And as he came and drew near to the house, he heard music and dancing.	Erat autem filius ejus senior in agro: et cum veniret, et appropinquaret domui, audivit symphoniam et chorum:	ην δὲ ὁ υἱὸς αὐτοῦ ὁ πρεσβύτερος ἐν ἀγρῷ: καὶ ὡς ἐρχόμενος ἤγγισεν τῇ οἰκίᾳ, ἤκουσεν συμφωνίας καὶ χορῶν,	Agrei au senísteros ēst sūnús: joqe jom cēmsēt enim domom nedisēt, kómkantum leigṃ-qe kluwét.
26	So he called one of the servants and asked what these things meant.	et vocavit unum de servis, et interrogavit quid hæc essent.	καὶ προσκαλεσάμενος ἕνα τῶν παίδων ἐπυνθάνετο τί ἂν εἴη ταῦτα.	Joqe neqom móghuwom ghawlós pṛket qid ghai-ke bhowsēnt.
27	And he said to him, ‘Your brother has come, and because he has received him safe and sound, your father has killed the fatted calf.’	Isque dixit illi: Frater tuus venit, et occidit pater tuus vitulum saginatum, quia salvum illum recepit.	ὁ δὲ εἶπεν αὐτῷ ὅτι Ὁ ἀδελφός σου ἥκει, καὶ ἔθυσεν ὁ πατήρ σου τὸν μόσχον τὸν σιτευτόν, ὅτι ὑγιαίνοντα αὐτὸν ἀπέλαβεν.	Isqe sqet: bhrātēr tewe cēme enim piwonṃ patḗr two chone loigom, jodqid tom cīwóm solwom ghōde.
28	“But he was angry and would not go in. Therefore his father came out and pleaded with him.	Indignatus est autem, et nolebat introire. Pater ergo illius egressus, cœpit rogare illum.	ὠργίσθη δὲ καὶ οὐκ ἤθελεν εἰσελθεῖν. ὁ δὲ πατὴρ αὐτοῦ ἐξελθὼν παρεκάλει αὐτόν.	kṛditós autim esti, joqe nē en eitum weluāt. Ar patḗr ejos eksodlós, bhwijét im chestum.
29	So he answered and said to his father, ‘Lo, these many years I have been serving you; I never transgressed your commandment at any time; and yet you never gave me a young goat, that I might make merry with my friends.	At ille respondens, dixit patri suo: Ecce tot annis servio tibi, et numquam mandatum tuum præterivi: et numquam dedisti mihi hædum ut cum amicis meis epularer.	ὁ δὲ ἀποκριθεὶς εἶπεν τῷ πατρὶ αὐτοῦ, Ἰδοὺ τοσαῦτα ἔτη δουλεύω σοι καὶ οὐδέποτε ἐντολήν σου παρῆλθον, καὶ ἐμοὶ οὐδέποτε ἔδωκας ἔριφον ἵνα μετὰ τῶν φίλων μου εὐφρανθῶ:	Atqe se protiweqents, patrei bhato sewe: edke totioms atnoms sístāmi twei upo, joqe neqom dikām tewe kleusō dus, atqe neqom meghei ghaidom desta wḷdi amiks senutéuiji.
30	But as soon as this son of yours came, who has devoured your livelihood with harlots, you killed the fatted calf for him.’	Sed postquam filius tuus hic, qui devoravit substantiam suam cum meretricibus, venit, occidisti illi vitulum saginatum.	ὅτε δὲ ὁ υἱός σου οὗτος ὁ καταφαγών σου τὸν βίον μετὰ πορνῶν ἦλθεν, ἔθυσας αὐτῷ τὸν σιτευτὸν μόσχον.	Mō ita tom sūnús tewe kei, rēim loutsās cṛālós cēme, ólnosmi péiwonṃ loigom chonta.
31	“And he said to him, ‘Son, you are always with me, and all that I have is yours.	At ipse dixit illi: Fili, tu semper mecum es, et omnia mea tua sunt:	ὁ δὲ εἶπεν αὐτῷ, Τέκνον, σὺ πάντοτε μετ' ἐμοῦ εἶ, καὶ πάντα τὰ ἐμὰ σά ἐστιν:	Atqe oise tosmi weuqét: suneu, tū áiwesi moio essi, enim solwa menia téwija sonti.
32	It was right that we should make merry and be glad, for your brother was dead and is alive again, and was lost and is found.’”	epulari autem, et gaudere oportebat, quia frater tuus hic mortuus erat, et revixit; perierat, et inventus est.	εὐφρανθῆναι δὲ καὶ χαρῆναι ἔδει, ὅτι ὁ ἀδελφός σου οὗτος νεκρὸς ἦν καὶ ἔζησεν, καὶ ἀπολωλὼς καὶ εὑρέθη.	Wḷdm autim terptum, joqe gaudhētum opos est, jodqid bhrātēr tewe kei dhedhuwós ēst atqe coje ati: skombnós ēst, atqe wṛētai.

I.1.5. Newos Bhoidā (New Testament) – Jōhanēs, 1, 1-14

	English	Latine	Ελληνικά	Eurōpáiom
1	In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.	in principio erat Verbum et Verbum erat apud Deum et Deus erat Verbum	Ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος, καὶ ὁ λόγος ἦν πρὸς τὸν θεόν, καὶ θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος.	Pāriei Wṛdhom bhewet, joqe Wṛdhom Deiwei est ensí, joqe Deiwos Wṛdhom est.
2	He was in the beginning with God.	hoc erat in principio apud Deum	οὗτος ἦν ἐν ἀρχῇ πρὸς τὸν θεόν.	Ensí id pāriei Deiwei est.
3	All things were made through Him, and without Him nothing was made that was made.	omnia per ipsum facta sunt et sine ipso factum est nihil quod factum est	πάντα δι' αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο, καὶ χωρὶς αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο οὐδὲ ἕν. ὃ γέγονεν	Eisōd solwa gegner enim id aneu neqid gégnissēt josio gégone.
4	In Him was life, and the life was the light of men.	in ipso vita erat et vita erat lux hominum	ἐν αὐτῷ ζωὴ ἦν, καὶ ἡ ζωὴ ἦν τὸ φῶς τῶν ἀνθρώπων:	Ismi ceitā bhewet, joqe ceitā ēst dhghómonom leuks.
5	And the light shines in the darkness, and the darkness did not comprehendit	et lux in tenebris lucet et tenebrae eam non conprehenderunt	καὶ τὸ φῶς ἐν τῇ σκοτίᾳ φαίνει, καὶ ἡ σκοτία αὐτὸ οὐ κατέλαβεν.	Itaqe leuks skotei skéjeti, joqe oisām skotos nē twrét.
6	There was a man sent from God, whose name was John.	fuit homo missus a Deo cui nomen erat Iohannes	Ἐγένετο ἄνθρωπος ἀπεσταλμένος παρὰ θεοῦ, ὄνομα αὐτῷ Ἰωάννης:	Gnātós esti wīrós Deiw sontonós Jōhanēs nṓmṇtos.
7	This man came for a witness, to bear witness of the Light, that all through him might believe.	hic venit in testimonium ut testimonium perhiberet de lumine ut omnes crederent per illum	οὗτος ἦλθεν εἰς μαρτυρίαν, ἵνα μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ τοῦ φωτός, ἵνα πάντες πιστεύσωσιν δι' αὐτοῦ.	Tristimonii ludhét se, leukbhi tristidhēnts, ei solwoi ijo kreddhēsēnt.
8	He was not that Light, but was sent to bear witness of that Light.	non erat ille lux sed ut testimonium perhiberet de lumine	οὐκ ἦν ἐκεῖνος τὸ φῶς, ἀλλ' ἵνα μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ τοῦ φωτός.	Nē olne leuks, immō, leukbhi tristidhēnts.
9	That was the true Light which gives light to every man coming into the world.	erat lux vera quae inluminat omnem hominem venientem in mundum	ην τὸ φῶς τὸ ἀληθινόν, ὃ φωτίζει πάντα ἄνθρωπον, ἐρχόμενον εἰς τὸν κόσμον.	Leuks wērom ēst, solwom bhnuti dhghomonṃ, dhoubnom kod ludhl.
10	He was in the world, and the world was made through Him, and the world did not know Him.	in mundo erat et mundus per ipsum factus est et mundus eum non cognovit	ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ ἦν, καὶ ὁ κόσμος δι' αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο, καὶ ὁ κόσμος αὐτὸν οὐκ ἔγνω.	Dhoubnei ēst, enim ijo dhoubnom gegner, atqe nē im dhoubnom gnōt.
11	He came to His own, and His owndid not receive Him.	in propria venit et sui eum non receperunt	εἰς τὰ ἴδια ἦλθεν, καὶ οἱ ἴδιοι αὐτὸν οὐ παρέλαβον.	Somobhos ludhét, atqe im somói ghadont nei ad.
12	But as many as received Him, to them He gave the right to become children of God, to those who believe in His name:	quotquot autem receperunt eum dedit eis potestatem filios Dei fieri his qui credunt in nomine eius	ὅσοι δὲ ἔλαβον αὐτόν, ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς ἐξουσίαν τέκνα θεοῦ γενέσθαι, τοῖς πιστεύουσιν εἰς τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ,	Jotioi im ghadónt, maghtim tobhos génonī dōt Diwoputla, esio nōmṇ kréddhēntbhos,
13	who were born, not of blood, nor of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of man, but of God.	qui non ex sanguinibus neque ex voluntate carnis neque ex voluntate viri sed ex Deo nati sunt	οἳ οὐκ ἐξ αἱμάτων οὐδὲ ἐκ θελήματος σαρκὸς οὐδὲ ἐκ θελήματος ἀνδρὸς ἀλλ' ἐκ θεοῦ ἐγεννήθησαν.	joi nē ḗsenos, neqe memsī wolis, neqe wīrī immō Déiwosio gnāts sonti.
14	And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us, and we beheld His glory, the glory as of the only begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth.	et Verbum caro factum est et habitavit in nobis et vidimus gloriam eius gloriam quasi unigeniti a Patre plenum gratiae et veritatis	Καὶ ὁ λόγος σὰρξ ἐγένετο καὶ ἐσκήνωσεν ἐν ἡμῖν, καὶ ἐθεασάμεθα τὴν δόξαν αὐτοῦ, δόξαν ὡς μονογενοῦς παρὰ πατρός, πλήρης χάριτος καὶ ἀληθείας.	Joqe Wṛdhom memsom wṛstós esti, enim pḷtomóm nossi dhēke ení, enim ejos qedos dṛkomes, qedos swāi oinógnāteiom Patrós wḗroti crati-qe plēnóm.

I.2 Komtloqiom (Conversation)

Common expressions in MIE include:

English	Eurōpaiom
hello	alā / gheuse
dear Peter:	qeime Perte:
welcome	crātós / sucṃtós tū
good day	latom āsúm
good morning	wēsrom āsúm
good afternoon / evening	wesprom āsúm
good night	noqtim āsúm
how are you?	qotā walḗiesi?
I am fine	walēiō sū
what is your name? [how are you heard?]	qotā kluwḗiesi?
what is your name?	qid esti tebhei nōmṇ?
my name is Peter [I am heard Peter]	kluwēiō Pertos
my name is Peter	meghei Pertos nōmṇ
pleased to meet you	gaudhēiō tewe gnōtim
please [I ask you]	chedhō
thanks	méitimoms / moitmom
thanks (I give you)	prijēsna / prósēdiom (tebhei agō)
I thank you	prijēiō tewom
you are welcome, sir	esti sū, potei
excuse me	ṇgnōdhi
sorry/pardon me	parke
I am sorry	kesdō
don't worry	mē koisāie
good bye, darling	sḷwēj’, prijótṃā
good luck	kobom āsúm
yes	dā / jai / ne-(ghi)
indeed	nem-pe / ita tod
no	nē / nei
alright	tagte
attention	probhoudhos
where is the door	qodhei dhweris?
here is what I asked	kei esti jod pṛkskóm
what is this?	qid (esti) tod?
this is food	pitús tod (esti)
what time is it?	qid esti daitis?
it is true	wērom tod
very good / the best	bhodistom / bhodsṃom
everything is alright	solwa sū́ (ágontor)
how old are you?	qótobhos átnobhos tū?
I am ten years old [ten born I am]	dekṃ gnātós esmi
do you speak European?	bhāsoi (bhasoi) an Eurōpaiom?
I speak a little	páukolom bhāmoi
I don't understand you	nē tewom peumi
tell me what you think	seqe-moi qid kṇsēiāsi
I don't know	nē woida
shut up	takēj’ (takēie)
sit down	sisde (sg.) / sísdete (pl.)
come here	cemj' (cemie) kom-ke
I'm going right now	nū ghenghō kom
what do you do or study?	qóterom ghléndhesi an driesi?
are they married?	esti lachḗionti?
I love women	lubhēiō pelū dhḗmonāms / cenāms
write here your address	deikom skreibhe kei tewe
I live in the Main Street	Stoighei Magnéi ceiwō / trebhō
Lucrecia and I are friends	Lukretiā egṓ -qe ámeikes smes / ámeike swes
the cat mews in the garden	kattā ghortei mijaluti
the dog bites the cat	kattām mordḗieti kwōn
the woman walks with the cat	katt dhḗmonā alietoi
I see the head of the cat	katts dṛkō ghebhlām
Where is the train?	qodhei esti douknom?
the train is here	douknom (esti) kei
I want to eat fish	welmi piskim ghostum
do you want to sleep with me?	welsi mojo sweptum?
yes, I wish for it	jai, moksi gherijai
no, you stink / smell bad	nē, smérdesi / bhragriesi dus
it is hot! [how hot is it!]	qām kalḗieti!
it is cold! [how cold is it!]	qām srīgēieti!
I go swimming to the lake everyday	laqom eimi dhochei snātum qāqei
can I smoke?	maghō (an) smeughtum?
may I smoke? [is it possible (for me) to smoke?]	maghniom meghei an smeughtum (esti)? esti moi smeughtum?
smoking prohibited	smeughtum wétānom
happy new year	ghoilom newom atnom

NOTE. About the sentence “is it possible to smoke?”, constructed with the verb esti, compare Lat. est in Ovid (Metamorphoses Book III, 479) quod tangere non est, “as it is not possible to touch”; also Virgil est cernere, “it can be seen”; also, for Gk.estì(n), “it is possible”, compare Lucian (The Parliament of the Gods, 12) Ἔστιν, ὦ Ἑρμῆ, “is it possible, Hermes”.

MIE language lessons with common vocabulary and sentences are freely available at <http://dnghu.org/indo-european-language/>.

I.3 Late PIE Lexicon

This lexicon, from <http://dnghu.org/en/proto-indo-european-language/> (available online with detailed etymological information), uses a phonetic writing; therefore, syllables from roots in [ew] are written ew, but otherwise appear as eu.

Some MIE writing rules do not apply. A schwa (∂) has been left in syllables with zero-vocalism, when articulation needs make it better to have a vowel, so that people are able to articulate them; as, w∂ldhējō, not *woldhējō, ker∂srom not *keresrom. The same articulatory schwa is used in some syllables, as nouns in -m∂n, or negation in ∂n- so that non-expert readers see there is a syllable. This way, it is nearer to voices with negation like Lat. iniustus or Gk. aekon, which add a syllable in metrics.

Apart from the articulatory schwa, another etymological schwa appears, representing an older PIH laryngeal, which in Late PIE is pronounced differently in each dialect. Laryngeal schwa is omitted if it is word-initial and appears alone, as in PIH H₃bhruH, or if the preceding syllable has full vocalism, as in klamrós, but it is written elsewhere, as in p∂tēr.

Another schwa case is resonans cum laryngale occlusa, i.e. a sequence XSHX, where S = sonant, X = consonant or sonant, H = laryngeal, and the group has zero vocalism. To distinguish the laryngeal tone and be able to separate pairs like full and leveled, the writing is the same as if it had full vocalism

The output is then the same as in Italic and Celtic, where long quantity is preserved (as in Old Indian), metrically equivalent to the two syllables that would be in Greek. So, for example, we have mlākós and prāwos. This rule hasn’t been applied if the first sonant is preceded by w or j, as in w∂lnā.

The Latin meaning and Syntax further define the English meaning and proper use of the PIE word.

English	*Latin*	PIE	Syn
abandoned	solus	ermos	adI
abound	abundō	spreigō	den
about	per	per(i), per(ti)	ind
above	supra	upsi	ind
absent	absens	apowésentis	adII
abundant	abundans	chonós	adI
abuse	abūtōr	dhebhō	intr
acarian	acarus	koris	fem
accelerate	accelerō	spreudō	intr
acorn	glans	cél∂ndis	fem
acorn	glans	medjom	neu
acquire	potior	potíjomoi	inc
activate	ciō	kjējō	cau
active	strēnuus	strēnwos	adI
Adam's apple	adamī malum	croghos	mas
address	directiō	deikos	mas
adhere	adhaerō	gleibhō	tr
adjust	adaptō	árarjō	tr
administrate	administrō	médnumi	tr
adorn	ornō	mondō	tr
adorn	ornō	peikō	tr
advantage	praestō	(sí)stāmi antí/prāi	den
advise	suadeō	plākējō	cau
affirm	aiō	∂gjō	intr
afflict	affligō	ághnumi	tr
after	post	pos(ti)	ind
afterwards	postea	pósteri	ind
again	re(d)	ati	ind
against	contrā	komtrōd	ind
against	contrā	proti	ind
aggravate	exulceror	odáugjomoi	intr
agitate	agitō	dhúnumi	tr
agitate	permoueō	kreutō	tr
agitated	agitātus	kighrós	mas
agnus castus	uitēx	weitēks	mas
agonise	praepatior	c∂lnāmi	intr
agreement	pacta	koimā	fem
agreement	contractus	meitrom
air	aer	porā	fem
alas	uae	troughi	ind
alas	uae	wai	ind
alder	alnus	álesnos	fem
alder	betullla	wernā	fem
alife	uīuus	cejwos	adI
alike	quasi	jota sei	ind
allergy	allergia	dedrus	mas
alleyway	angustiae	smoughos	mas
along	praeter	práiteri	ind
already	iam	jāmi	ind
also	quoque	toqe	ind
altar	āra	āsā	fem
always	semper	áiw(es)i	ind
ancestor	abauus	strutjos	mas
and	ac	atqe
and	et	enim	ind
and	que	qe	ind
and	et	joqe	ind
and also	itaque	itaqe	ind
and not	neque	neqe	ind
angelica	angelica	kwondhros	fem
angle	angulus	qedos	mas
animal	bestiola	bhugos	mas
animal	animāl	céjwotos	mas
animal	animal	smalos	mas
ankle	talus	sp∂ros
announce	nuntiō	kárkarjō
annoy	molestō	peigō	tr
annoyance	molestia	oghlos	mas
annoying	mōlestus	mōlestos	adI
annoying	molestus	trudsmós	adI
anorak	peplum	kroknos	mas
another	alius	onjos	adII
another	alius	aljos	lois
anounce	nuntiō	m∂lgājō	tr
ant	formīca	m∂rmeikā	fem
antique	antiqūs	ántijos	adI
anus	ānus	ghodos	mas
apart	separātim	s∂ni	ind
apparent	appararens	windos	adI
appear	appareō	mlōskō	intr
appease	litō	litājō
appendix	appendix	plighā	fem
apple	malum	ábelos	mas
arch	incuruō	weitō	cau
arch	flectō	wekō	intr
ardour	ardor	aisdhom	neu
arid	aridus	kserós	adI
arm	armus	armos	mas
arm	bracchium	bhāghus	mas
arm	braccium	dóusontos	mas
armour	armatūra	twakos	neu
army	exercitus	korjos	neu
army	exercitus	str∂tos
around	circum	ambhí	ind
arrangement	institūtiō	stām∂n	neu
arrival	aduentus	ghētis	fem
arrive	perueniō	ghēmi	intr
arrow	sagitta	kēlom	neu
art	ars	artis	fem
article	articulus	melm∂n	neu
articulation	rotula	anglos	mas
articulation	artus	k∂nksos	mas
as	quām	qām	ind
ash	cinis	kinēs	fem
ashtree	frāxinus	bh∂rksnos	fem
ashtree	ornus	ósonos	fem
ask	poscō	p∂rkskō	tr
asp	pōpulus tremula	apsā	fem
aspect	speciēs	spekjēs	fem
aspire	appetō	wéenāmoi	tr
ass	cūlus	kūlos	mas
asunder-legged	uārus	wāros	mas
at	ad	ad	ind
at hand	praestō	práighest	ind
at least	quīdem	ge	ind
at that point	tam	tām	ind
ate	ēdī	ghosóm	tr
atribute	addicō	bhagō	cau
attack	impetus	w∂rgos
attack	oppugnō	wendhō	intr
attack (to be in)	urgeō	w∂rgējō	den
attention	audientia	kleutis	fem
auger	terebra	téredhrom	neu
augur	augurium	kailom	neu
aument	augeō	āugējō	cau
aunt	amita	ámetā	fem
aunt	mātertera	mātérterā	fem
autumn	autumnus	osēn	mas
avanced	prouectus	prokos	adI
avoid	uitō	leinō	tr
awaken	expergefaciō	bhoudhējō	cau
axe	ascia	áksijā	fem
axe	secūris	sekūris	fem
axe	secūris	tekslā	fem
axle	axis	aksis	mas
babble	locutiō sine sensu	batā	fem
babble	garriō	plabrjomoi	intr
babble	blaterō	lalājo	intr
baby	lactans	dhēljos	mas
back	retrō	awou	ind
back	dorsum	gurnos	mas
back	retrō	retrōd	ind
backbone	spīna	w∂raghm∂n	neu
backwards	retrō	postrōd	ind
bad	malē	dus	ind
bad	malus	upelos	adI
badger	mēlēs	brokos	mas
bag	follis	bholghis	mas
bag	saccus	kṓrukos	mas
bald	glaber	kalwos	adI
ball	pila	ghroudos	mas
ball	globus	gugā	fem
ball	pila	orghis	fem
ball	pila	qeqlom	∂m
band	uitta	seimā	fem
bandy-legged	ualgus	walgos	adI
barbaric	barbarus	bálbalos	and
barefoot	planipēs	bhosos	adII
bargain	negotior	wesnējō	tr
bark	latrō	baubjomoi	intr
barley	hordeum	ghórdejom	neu
barley	hordeum	jewom	neu
barrel	dōlium	dōljom	mas
basin	uallis	w∂lghis	fem
basket	cista	kistā	fem
basket	cista	qasjos	mas
basket	sporta	sportā	fem
basket	uidulus	woidlos	mas
bast	liber	lubhros	mas
bath	lābrum	lowtrom	neu
be	sum	esmi/somi/bhewmi	dur
be	sum	bhewmi	dur
be	sum	esmi	dur
be afraid	metuō	timējō	tr
be allowed	licēt	likējō	tr
be angry	irāscor	eisskomoi	inc
be annoying	molestus (esse)	pigējō	den
be bitter	acūtus sum	geigō	den
be born	nāscor	gnskomoi	inc
be bright	splendeō	spl∂ndējō	den
be cold	algeō	alghējō	den
be cold	frigeō	srigējō	den
be concealed	lateō	l∂tējō	den
be curved	uieō	wijējō	den
be dekayed	moror	st∂ntējō
be experienced	calleō	kaldējō	den
be fit	ualeō	w∂lējō	den
be flat	plānus sum	l∂pējō	den
be followed	secūtus ueniō	swemōr	dur
be free	uacūs sum	gh∂rējō	den
be high	excellō	kelsō	intr
be hot	caleō	k∂lējō	den
be necessary	opportet	opos esti	intr
be pregnant	grauidus sum	kuwējō	den
be proper	decet	dekējō	intr
be rotten	pūteō	pūtējō	cau
be sad	lugeō	lugējō	den
be scratched	carreō	k∂rsējō	den
be situated	sum	ēsmoi	intr
be strong	uegeō	wegō	dur
be strong	uigeō	wigējō	den
be swollen	tumeō	oidējō	den
be swollen	tumeō	tumējō	den
be thirsty	sitiō	t∂rsējō	den
be used	colō	eukō	tr
be wet	madeō	m∂dējō	den
be withered	marceō	m∂rkējō	den
beacause	quia	jod qid	ind
beak	rōstrum	rōstrom	neu
beak	rostrum	sroknā	fem
beam	tignum	tegnom	neu
beam	trabs	trabhis	fem
bean	faba	bhabhā	fem
bear	ursus	∂rtkos	mas
bear	bherō	bhermi (bherō)	tr
beard	barba	bhardhā	fem
bearing	portātiō	bh∂rtis	fem
beast	fera	cherā	fem
beast of burden	iūmentum	jóugsm∂ntom	mas
beastly	ferīnus	cherīnós
beat	uerberō	w∂leisō	tr
beat up	contundō	orgājō	tr
beautiful	pulcher	chaisos	adI
beautiful	pulcher	wēmos	adI
beaver	fīber	bhebhros	mas
become accustomed	suēscō	swēdhskō	inc
become vigorous	uigescō	kíikumi	intr
bed	lectus	spondhā	fem
bee	apēs	bheiklā	fem
beech	fāgus	bhāgos	fem
beer	ceruisia	álum∂n	neu
beer	ceruisia	kremom	neu
beer	zythum	sudhjom	mas
before	ante	antí	ind
before	prae	p∂ros	ind
before	prae	prāi	ind
before dawn	anteluciō	anksi	ind
beget	gignō	gignō	cau
begird	cingō (to)	jṓsnumi	tr
beguile	dēcipiō	dreughō	cau
behind	post	apóteri	ind
belch	ructō	reugō	intr
believe	crēdō	kréddōmi	tr
belly	uenter	tarsós	mas
belong	pertineō	ainō	den
belt (for safety)	cinctus	wérunos	mas
bend	curuō	greugō	intr
bending	plecāmentum	n∂mtos	mas
beneficial	benignus	síslāwos	adI
benefit	fruor	lawō
benefit	lucrum	lawtlom
bent	tortus	kambos	adI
bent	pandus	pandos	mas
berry	mōrum	morom	neu
beseech	precor	prekō	tr
besides	praeterea	perom	ind
betrothed	sponsus	sponstós	mas
better	melius	bhodjós	adI
between	inter	énteri	ind
beware	caueō	k∂wējō	den
beyond	praeter	ektós	ind
biceps	biceps	kiskā	fem
big	grossus	grotsos	adI
big	magnus	m∂gnos	adI
bile	fel	cheldi	neu
bilge out	excupāre	semjō	tr
bind	nectō	nedskō	tr
bind	ligō	bhendhō	tr
bind	nectō	kikājō	tr
bind	ligō	ligājō	tr
bind	alligō	reigō	tr
bind	ligō	séinumi	tr
biped	bīpēs	dwipods	adII
birch	betulla	bherāgs	fem
bird	auis	awis	fem
bite	admordeō	denkō	tr
bite	mordeō	mordējō	tr
black	āter	ātros	adI
black	āter	dhoubhús	adI
black	āter	k∂rsnos
blackbird	merula	meslā	fem
blade	aciēs	akjēs	fem
blame	culpō	onējō	tr
blaze	flagrō	sweidō
bleach	aqua lixiuiae	kormnos	mas
bleat	bēbō	bebājō	intr
bleat	bēbō	blēkājō	intr
blind	caecus	andhos
blind	caecus	kaikos	adI
blister	callus	kaldos	mas
blister	uensīca	wenseikā	fem
block	inctercludō	mersō	tr
blood	sanguis	ēs∂r	neu
blood	cruor	kruwós	mas
bloom	floreō	bhlosējō	den
blow	exhalō	(í)wēmi	tr
blow	spirō	bhesmi	intr
blow	flō	bhlāmi	tr
blow out	ēmungō	munkō	tr
blue	caeruleus	ghlastos	adI
boar	aper	apros	mas
board	tabula	ploutos	mas
boast	glorior	bhledō	intr
boast	glorior	ghelbō	intr
bodkin	cuspis	ēlā
body	corpus	k∂rpos	neu
boil	feruō	bherwō	inc
boil	ferueō	seutō	den
bold	audax	dh∂rsus	adI
boldness	audacia	dh∂rstis	fem
bone	ossum	ostis	mas
border	limēs	krēqā	fem
bore	forō	bhorājō	tr
both	ambō	ambhou	lois
boundary	margō	margōn	mas
bow	arcus	arqos	mas
bowels	intestīnum	gudom
bowl	testa	tekstā
box	capsa	k∂psā	fem
boy	ephebus	kelots	mas
boy	ephebus	maqos	mas
boy	puer	póweros	mas
brain	cerebrum	ker∂srom	neu
bramble	dūmus	dristos	mas
bran	furfur	tolkos	mas
branch	ramulus	kankus	mas
branch	ramus	osdos	mas
branches	foliamen	cespis	fem
brass	aes	ajos	neu
brassy	aereus	ájesnos	adII
brave	audāx	tregsnos	mas
breach	fissūra	bhernā
bread	pānis	bharsjom	neu
break	frangō	bhr∂ngō	tr
break	defringō	bhrúsnāmi	tr
break	rumpō	rumpō	tr
breast	pectus	bhrusos	mas
breath	animus	án∂mos	mas
breath	halitus	spoisnā	fem
breathe	respirō	etō	intr
breathe	anhelō	pneusō	intr
breeze	aura	áwelā	fem
brew	concoquō	bhrewō	tr
briar	sentis	ksentis	fem
bridge	pons	bhrēwā	fem
bright	lucidus	bhānús	adI
bright	lucens	leukós	adI
brilliant	splendidus	argós	adI
bring out	prōmō	dhraghō	tr
broad	latus	plātús	adI
brooch	fibula	bharkos	mas
brooch	fibula	dhéicodhlā
brood	prōlēs	aglā	fem
brook	amnis	apnis	fem
brook	rīuus	reiwos	mas
broom	genista	aksteinos	fem
broom	everriculum	swoplom	neu
broth	ius	jeus	neu
brother	frāter	bhrātēr	mas
brother-in-law	leuir	daiwēr	mas
brotherly	frāternus	bhrtrijos	adII
brother's son	sobrīnus	bhrātreinos	mas
brown	castaneus	bhrounos	adI
bud	geniculum	gnoubhos	mas
bug	cīmex	keimēx	mas
building	aedes	aidhis	fem
building	aedēs	demos	neu
building place	locus operum	d∂mpedom	neu
bull	bouuculus	porsis	mas
bull	taurus	tauros	mas
bulrush	iuncus	bhrughnos	fem
bulrush	iuncus	joinkos	mas
bumblebee	crābrō	krāsrōn	mas
bundle	fascis	bhaskis	mas
bundle	fascis	dhrighsós	mas
burglar	fur	tājots	mas
burn	ardeō	aidhō	intr
burn	urō	smelō	dur
burn	areō	asējō	den
burn	ardeō	dhechō	dur
burn	ūrō	eusō	intr
burn	combūrō	konkējō	cau
burn	cremō	kremājō	cau
burnt	ustus	ustós	adI
burst in	irrumpō	skekō	intr
bury	inhumō	ghrebhō	tr
bury	sepeliō	sepēlijō	tr
bush	frutex	bhrutēks	mas
bush	dūmus	dousmos	mas
bush	arbustus	q∂rsnos	mas
but	sed	mō	ind
butter	aruīna	arwā	fem
butter	butyrum	ghertom	neu
butterfly	pāpiliō	pāpeljos	mas
buttock	clūnis	klounis	fem
buttocks	pūga	pougā	fem
buy	emō	qrínāmi
buy	emō	selō	tr
buzz	susurrō	susājō	intr
cabbage	caulis	kaulis	fem
cable	mitra	sneurom	neu
cable	cable	winis	fem
cackle	gracillō	grakijō	intr
cackle	cacillō	kaklājō	intr
calculate	calculō	deljō	tr
calf	uitulus	loigos	mas
calf	uitulus	wetlos	mas
call	uocō	ghawō	tr
calm	calmōsus	sēknis	adI
camp	castra	kastra	neu
can	possum	maghō	tr
cancer	cancer	gh∂ndhus	mas
cannabis	cannabis	worgjom	neu
canopy	umbraculum	skostrom	neu
captive	captus	k∂ptos
car	uehiculum	woghnos	mas
carbon	carbō	k∂rdhōn	mas
caress	mulceō	ghénumi	tr
carrot	carota	m∂rkā
carry	portō	portājō	tr
carry	uehō	weghō	tr
cart	currus	k∂rsus	mas
carve	scalpō	skalpō	tr
carve	caelō	skreidō	tr
carve	caelō	smeidhō	tr
castle	castellum	kasterlom	neu
castrate	castrō	skerdō
cat	fēlēs	kattā	fem
catch	capiō	k∂pjō	tr
cattle	armentum	árm∂ntom	neu
cattle	pecu	peku	neu
cauldron	catīnus	qorjom	neu
cause	causō	winsō	cau
caution	uas	wadhis	mas
cave	tugurium	antrom	neu
cave	specus	speqos	mas
cavern	cauerna	kow∂r	neu
cavity	cauitās	celom
cedar	cedrus	bhrosdhos	fem
ceiling	tectum	tegtom	neu
cellar	pitheūs	gupā	fem
cereal	cereāle	dhōnā	fem
cereal	cereāle	jéwornjom	fem
cerebellum	cerebēlum	mosgom	neu
certain	certō	smā	ind
certain	quīdam	enis	adII
certainly	certō	dā	ind
certainly	certō	ghi	ind
certainly	sīc	ka	ind
certainly	profectō	toi	ind
chain	catēna	katēsna	fem
chain	catēna	seinus	mas
chalk	crēta	krētā	fem
chamber	cella	kēlā	fem
chance	uicis	wikis	fem
change	mūtō	mejnō	inc
character	ingenium	mōs	mas
charge	naulus	merkēds	fem
charioteer	auriga	∂rots	mas
chatter	blaterō	blatsājō	intr
cheap	uīlis	wésolis	adI
cheat	dēlūdō	meugō	intr
cheer	ouō	owājō	tr
cheese	caseus	qatsos	mas
cheese	caseus	tūrós	mas
cherry tree	cornus	kornos
chest	pectus	pegtos	neu
chew	mandō	gjewō	tr
chew	mandō	mandō	tr
child	pūpus	pūpos	mas
child	infans	putlom	neu
chin	mentum	m∂ntom	neu
chin	mentum	smekslā	fem
chirp	frigō	bhrigijō	intr
chirp	titiō	titijō	intr
choke	suffocō	bhleusō	tr
choose	ēligō	opjō	tr
circle	circus	kirkos	mas
circuit	circuitus	ámbhinom	neu
circulate	uersor	qelō	dur
citizen	cīuis	keiwis	and
city	urbs	polis	fem
ciurve	incuruō	qelpō	tr
civil	cīuīlis	kéiwijos	adII
clack	glociō	glokijō	intr
claim	uindicō	qéinumoi	tr
clang	clangō	klagjō	intr
classical	classicus	ántitjos
clean	mundus	mūdnós
clean	purgō	pewō	tr
cleanse	putō	s∂rpijō
clear	clārus	aiskrós	kour
clear	candidus	bhlaidos	adI
cleave	findō	bhindō	cau
close	claudō	klawdō	tr
close	claudō	w∂rijō	tr
closed	clausus	klawstós	adI
cloth	uestis	westis	fem
cloud	nūbes	nebhis	fem
clown	scurrā	skoirsās	adII
club	baculum	baktlom
club	uirga	lorgos	mas
club	fustis	seikā	fem
club	uirga	wísogā	fem
coal	carbō	ángelos	mas
coast	litus	molā	fem
coat	sagum	p∂ltom
cockoo	cucūlus	kukūlós	mas
cockoo	cucu facere	kukulājō	intr
cockroach	blatta	blaktā	fem
cold	frigidus	ougros	adI
cold	frīgus	srigos	neu
collapse	ruō	rewō	inc / tr
collar	monīle	monīli	neu
collect	carpō	karpō	tr
collect	legō	legō	tr
collection	collectiō	kómāglom	neu
collection	collectioo	qejtis	fem
colony	colonia	ápowoiks	mas
colorant	colorans	keimos	neu
colour	colōr	kiwos	mas
colour	color	wornos	mas
coloured	uarius	p∂rqos	adI
colt	equulus	kánkestos	mas
comb	pectō	kesō	tr
comb	pectō	pekō	tr
comb	pecten	pektēn	mas
comb	pectō	pektō	tr
come	ueniō	cemjō	intr
come back	redeō	ghighējō	intr
come out	pāreō	pārējō
command	iubeō	judhējō	tr
commit	mandō	m∂ndōmi	tr
common	commūnis	kómmoinis	adII
communicate	communicō	mesgō	tr
community	commūnitas	kommoinitts	fem
compasses	circinus	kirknos	mas
compete	certō	sperdhō	tr
complain	queror	kwésomoi	intr
complete	complētus	kómplēnos	adII
complexed (to be)	tortus sum	w∂nghējō	den
compose	compōnō	qejō	tr
comprehend	teneō	t∂nējō	den tr
conceive	concipere	désāmi	tr
concubine	paelex	pareikā	fem
condense	spissō	stejō	inc
condition	habitus	dhēm∂n	neu
conducted	gessī	elóm	tr
conflagration	incendium	dáwetus	mas
connect	serō	serō	tr
conscience	conscientia	kómwoistis	fem
consider	opīnor	m∂njō	den
consideration	considerātiō	qeistis	fem
consort	coniux	komjugs	epi
conspiracy	coniurātiō	jālos	mas
conspirator	conspirātor	jōrós	mas
conspire	coniurō	jnumi	tr
contain	arceō	∂rkējō	den tr
contend	litigō	bhogājō	intr
contend	certō	wikjō	dur
contrive	machinor	smudhnō	intr
convex	conuexus	weksós	adI
cook	coquō	peqō	tr
coot	fulica	bhelēks	fem
copy	imitor	áimnumi
core	nucleus	pūrós	mas
corn	grānum	niktis	fem
corner	angulus	bh∂rstís	fem
cornice	corona	ghrendhā	fem
corruption	tābēs	tādhis	fem
couch	solium	stōlos	mas
cough	tussis	qostā	fem
cough	tussiō	tustijō	intr
coughing	tussis	tustis	fem
courage	audacia	nantis	fem
course	cursus	drewā	fem
course	cursus	k∂rstus	mas
court	curia	kómwoirjom	neu
courtyard	forum	dhworom	neu
cousin	cognātus	jentēr	mas
cover	uelō	skemō	tr
cover	obruō	skeumō	tr
cover	operiō	skeutō	tr
cover	tegō	tegō	tr
cow	bōs	cows	and
cow	bōs	lāpos	mas
cow	uacca	wakkā	fem
crab	cancer	karkros
crackle	crepō	krépāmi	intr
cradle	cūnae	gretlom
crane	grus	g∂rús	fem
crawl	rēpō	rēpō	intr
crawl	serpō	serpō	intr
crazy	insānus	dhwolnos	adI
create	generō	genesājō	cau
create	creō	krēmi	tr
creature	crātūra	teknom	neu
creep	rēpō	sn∂ghjō	intr
crest	crista	kristā	fem
crime	crīmen	kreim∂n	neu
crime	dēlictus	lōbā	fem
crimpy hair	turbidō	gouros	mas
crook	amnis	bhogjos	mas
crop	messis	sasjom	neu
cross	crux	kreuks	fem
cross	transeō	térnumi	tr
crossbeam	patibulum	ghlaghos	mas
crow	cornīx	kornēiks	fem
crowd	multitūdō	plēdhwis	fem
crowd	multitūdō	slougos	mas
crown	corōna	grendjom
crumb	grūmus	groumos	mas
crumb	mīca	smeikā	neu
crumble	friō	bhrijājō	tr
crush	conterō	m∂rtājō	tr
crush	pinsō	pinsō	tr
cry	drensō	dhrensājō	intr
cry	uāgiō	wāghijō	intr
cry	gemō	kreugō	intr
cry	clamor	krigā
cry	rūdō	reudō	intr
crying	plōrātus	roudos	mas
cudge	dolō	dolājō	tr
cuirass	lorīca	bhrusnjā	fem
cup	calix	kalēiks	mas
cup	cūpa	koupā	fem
curb	arcuō	bhegō	cau
curd cheese	lac passum	grutis	fem
curly	crispus	kripsos	adI
curtail	dēminuō	sneitō	tr
curve	curua	witjom	neu
curve	curuō	keubō	cau
curved	camur	k∂mros
curved	curuus	k∂rwos	adI
cushion	culcita	qolkā	fem
custom	mos	swēdhus	fem
cut	caedō	kaidō	cau
cut	exsecō	kretō	tr
cut	secō	sékāmi	tr
cut	secō	tmāmi	tr
cut off	amputō	snadhō	tr
cut off	separō	sp∂ltājō	tr
cut open	incīdō	bh∂rijō	cau
cut out	abscindō	drepō
cut out	abscindō	treukō	tr
dace	phoxinus	menis	mas
dad	pappa	appās	mas
dad	atta	attās	mas
dad	pappa	tātā	neu
damage	clādēs	klādis	mas
damage	dētrimentum	pēm∂n	neu
damage	perniciēs	wolsom	neu
damage	damnum	dapnom	neu
damp	imbuō	bewō	tr
dare	audeō	dh∂rsō	tr
dark	fuscus	dhóncelos	adI
dark	obscūrus	dhoncos	adI
dark	fuscus	dhuskos	adI
dark	obscūrus	keiros	adI
dark	mulleus	m∂lnejós	adI
dark	obscūrus	morcos
dark	obscūrus	skeuros	adI
darkness	tenebrae	recs	mas
darkness	tenebrae	temesrs	fem
dart	acumen	golbhōn	mas
daughter	filia	dhugtēr	fem
daughter-in-law	norus	snusos	fem
dawn	aurōra	ausōsā	fem
dawn	illūcescō	áussketi	intr
day	diēs	dhochos	mas
day	diēs	djēws	mas
day	diēs	djnom	neu
day	dies	latom	mas
dead	mortuus	m∂rtos	adII
dead	mortuus	m∂rwos	adII
deaf	surdus	bodhrós	adI
deaf	surdus	dhoubhos	adI
dear	cārus	prijós	adI
death	nex	chentis	fem
death	fūnus	dheunos	neu
death	mors	m∂rtis	fem
death	nex	neks	mas
debt	dēbitum	dh∂leglā	fem
deceive	fallō	ch∂lnō	tr
deceive	defraudō	dhwerō	tr
deceive	mentior	melsō	tr
decide	dēcernō	skidjō	tr
decline	decadō	sterbhō	intr
decree	consultus	dhedhmós	mas
deer	ceruus	kerwos	mas
defame	difāmō	k∂lwijō	tr
defecate	iunificō	ghedō	tr
defecate	cacō	kakkājō	intr
defect	mendum	smeros	neu
defect	dēfectus	wolnos	neu
defective	mancus	m∂nkos	adI
defend	dēfendō	mághnumi	tr
deflect	deflectō	skélnumi
delay	mora	morā	fem
delight	fruor	bhréucomoi	tr
demand	exigō	kupjō	tr
demon	diabolus	dhwosos	mas
dense	crēber	t∂nkros	adI
dense	crēber	tegús	adI
densifiy	stīpō	stoipējō	cau
depart	proficiscor	óighomoi	intr
departure	profectiō	proitis	fem
deposit	dēpositus	loghos	mas
depressed	dēpressus	neiwós	adI
desert	desertum	teusqa	neu
desert	desertum	jēlom	neu
deserve	mereō	m∂rējō	den
designate	dēsignō	mātējō	tr
desire	desiderium	aisskā	fem
desire	desiderō	gheríjomoi	tr
desire	desiderō	awējō	tr
desire	desiderō	chelō	tr
desire	cupiō	smegō	tr
desire	desiderō	wekmi	tr
desire	concupiscō	wenō	dur
desire eagerly	aueō	j∂ntō	tr
destroy	conterō	dheukō	cau
destroy	deleō	nokējō	cau
destroy	aboleō	olējō
detergent	dētersīuum	mūdlom	neu
devotion	dēuotiō	krōbhtus	mas
devour	uorō	sleugō	tr
devour	uorō	c∂rājō	tr
devour	uorō	cerbhō
dew	ros	dolghos
diarrhea	diarhea	dhorjā	fem
dick	crassus	bh∂nghus	adI
die	morior	m∂ríjomoi	intr
died	mortus est	walóm	intr
difference	differentia	kritis	fem
different	differens	íteros
dig	fodiō	bhodhjō	tr
dig	fodiō	kánāmi	tr
dig out	effodiō	teukō
dimension	dīmensiō	mētis	fem
dinner	cēna	kersnā	fem
dip	bronca	w∂ronka	fem
direct	directus	dh∂nghus	adI
direct	regō	regō	tr
dirt	immunditia	kóqros	mas
dirt	excrēmentum	kwoinom	mas
dirty	immundus	coudhros	adI
dirty	immundus	salús	adI
dirty	mancillō	keqō	tr
dis-	re(d)	rēd/re	ind
disabled	murcus	m∂rkos	adI
disgrace	labēs	ghálerom	neu
disguise	uestiō	mengō	tr
dishonour	dedecus	stupróm	neu
disk	orbis	orbhis	mas
dismantle	dismontō	dhruslijō	tr
dispersed	rārus	rārós	adI
dispossession	spolium	spoljom	neu
distaff	colus	qolus	fem
distribute	distribuō	nemō	tr
dive	immergō	cadhō	intr
divide	diuidō	k∂ljō	tr
divide	dīuidō	weidhō	tr
divide up	distribuō	daimoi	tr
do	faciō	dhídhēmi-dh∂kjō	tr
do harm	damnō	ghudjō
do harm	infensō	kepō	tr
do military service	militō	dhreughō	den
do not?	nonne	nom nē	ind
docile	infirmus	glegos	adI
doctor	medicus	médodiks	epic
dog	canis	kolignos	mas
dog	canis	kwōn	mas
door	foris	dhweris	fem
door	forēs	wēr	neu
double	duplus	dwoplos	adII
doubt	dubitō	okējō	den
dough	pasta	reughm∂n	neu
dough	massa	taismos	mas
dove	columba	dhombhos	mas
dove	columba	kólumbhos	mas
down	sub	nī	ind
dowry	dos	dōtis	fem
drag	dūcō	deukō	tr
drag	trahō	traghō	tr
drag	uerrō	wersō
drag away	abstrahō	tenghō	tr
drapery	drappus	drappos	mas
draw	stringō	streigō	tr
draw tight	stringō	stringō	tr
dream	somnus	ónerjos	mas
dream	somnium	swep∂r	neu
dream	somnium	swopnjom	neu
dream	somniō	swopnjājō	intr
dregs	colluuiēs	suljā	fem
dress	uestiō	westijō	tr
drink	pōtiō	pōtis	fem
drink	bibō	pibō	tr
drinking	pōtus	pōnom	neu
drip	egguttō	seilō	intr
drive	condūcō	enkō prō	tr
drizzle	irrorātiō	aghlóws	fem
drone	fūcus	bhouqos	mas
drop	gutta	b∂ndus	mas
drop	stilla	druptis	fem
drop	gutta	leibs	mas
drop	gutta	spakos	mas
drum	bombus	bámbalos
drunken	ebrius	ch∂rnos	adI
drunken	ebrius	tēmos	mas
dry	siccus	kserós	adI
dry	siccus	sisqos	adI
dry	siccus	susdos	mas
dry	siccus	t∂rstos	adI
dry	siccus	t∂rsus	adI
dry	torreō	torsējō	cau
dry skin	pellis sicca	sterbhnjom	neu
duck	anas	an∂ts	mas / fem
dust	puluis	pelwos	neu
duty (religious)	fas	dhas	neu
dwell	habitō	trebhō	den
dwelling	domicilium	westus	mas
eagle	aquila	éroros	mas
eagle owl	bubō	bughōn	mas
ear	auris	ousis	fem
early	mane	ájeri	ind
earth	humus	dhgh∂mós	mas
earth	terra	p∂ltéwijā	fem
earth	terra	tersā	fem
eastern	orientālis	áusteros
easy	facilis	reidos	adI
eat	edō	áknāmi	tr
eat	edō	edmi	tr
eat	uescor	wéskomoi	neu
edge	ōra	ōrā	fem
edge	excellō	bhrenō	intr
effort	mōlimen	molos	neu
egg	ōuum	ṓw(ij)om	neu
eight	octo	oktōu
eighth	octāūs	oktowos	adII
eject	iaciō	j∂kjō	tr
elbow	ulnā	olnā	fem
elder	ebulus	edhlos	fem
element	ēlementum	skōlos	mas
elm	ulmus	olmos	fem
elm	ulmus	woighos	fem
embank	aggerō	klāmi	tr
embryo	fētus	geltis	fem
embryon	foetus	c∂rebhos	mas
employee	famulus	dh∂mos	mas
empty	uānus	wāstos	adI
empty	uānus	wōnós	adI
empty	hauriō	ausijō	tr
enact	sanciō	sankijō	tr
encamp	castrō	kastrājō	tr
encircle	circumdō	gherdhō	tr
enclose	amplexor	twerō	tr
enclosure	claustrum	kaghos	mas
enclosure	claustrum	odhrom	neu
enclosure	clausūra	w∂regis	mas
encouragement	hortor	ghoréejomoi	cau
end	extrēmum	bendā	fem
end	fīnis	dhigsnis	mas
end	terminus	termēn	mas
endeavour	conitor	rōdhjō	tr
endure	resistō	tulējō	den
enemy	inimīcus	nemots	epic
enjoy oneself	oblector	terpō	intr
enjoyment	delectātiō	teptis	fem
enlarge	augeō	augējō	prog
enough	satis	satsi	ind
enough (to be)	sufficiō	dheughō	intr
entrails	uiscus	sorwā	fem
entrails	intestina	sternom	neu
entrance	ōstium	ōstjom	neu
entrance	iānua	jnuwā	fem
envelope	inuolūcrum	wélwtrom	neu
envy	inuidia	∂rsjā	fem
equal	aequus	somós	adIIm
equipment	armāmenta	kómopjom	neu
equipped with	praeditus	went	suff
erect	horreō	ghorsējō	cau
ermine	mustēla erminea	kormōn	mas
escape	effugiō	skeubhō	inc
estimate	aestimō	qíqeimi	tr
eternal	aeūs	aiwos	adII
eternity	aetas	áiwotāts	fem
even	aeqūs	aiqos	adI
even	etiam	eti	ind
even	glaber	gladhros	adI
evening	uesper	wespros	mas
evident	euidens	gnōros	adI
evil	scelus	skelos	neu
excavator	pāla	kernos	mas
excellent	excellens	bhodrós	adI
excellent	excellens	wēswos	adI
excess	excessus	údcris	fem
exchange	commūtātiō	mojnos	mas
exchange	mūtō	mejō	inc
exchange	mūtō	moitājō	tr
excite	excitō	sprewō	tr
exclusive	exclusōrius	káiwelos	neu
exhaustion	exhaustiō	dh∂tis	fem
expect	expectō	welpō	tr
expel	expellō	(jí)jēmi	cau
experience	experiō	perijō	tr
expression	dictus	weqtlom	neu
extend	extendō	spnumi
extend	extendī	spēmi	prog
extend	tendō	tendō	tr
extend	prōtēlō	tensō
extend	prolongō	tenjō	tr
extended	extensus	próstōrnos	adI
extension	strātus	st∂rnos	mas
external	exterior	éksteros	adI
extinguish	exstinguō	césnumi	tr
extraordinary	rārus	∂nswodhros	adI
exuberant	laetus	j∂ndros	adI
eye	oculus	oqos	mas
eyebrow	brus	bhrows	fem
fac	procul	dew	ind
face	ūltus	d∂rkā	fem
fact	factum	dhētis	fem
fair weather	serēnus	qoitrós, koitrós	adI
fall	cadō	kadō	prog
fall asleep	sōpiō	swōpijō	cau
fall asleep	obdormiscor	d∂rmijō	dur
fall down	praecipitor	piptō	tr
fall into	ingruō	ghrewō
fallow	ueruactum	polkā
false	falsus	m∂ljos	adI
family	familia	gentis	fem
family	familia	wenjā	fem
famine	esuriēs	nōunā	fem
famous	audītus	klutós	adI
fan	flābellum	bhlādhrom	neu
fan	flabellō	prējō	intr
fancy	lascīuiō	l∂skējō
far	procul	porsōd	ind
far (from)	procul	qeli	ind
farewell	abitiō	∂rtís	fem
farm	uilla	woikslā	fem
farmer	agricola	agróqolās	mas
fart	pedō	pesdō	intr
fashion	fabricor	teksō	tr
fat	adeps	lajos	neu
fat	crassus	pīmós	adI
fat	pinguis	piwōn	adI
fat	obēsus	t∂nghus	adI
father	pater	p∂tēr	mas
father-in-law	socer	swekros	mas
fatherland	patria	p∂trjā	fem
fatherly	paternus	p∂trjos	adII
fault	noxa	agos	mas
fault	culpa	loktos	mas
fault	mendum	mendom	neu
fear	paueō	p∂wējō	den
fear	metuō	āghar	intr
fear	timeō	bhíbheimi	tr
fear	timeō	dweimi	tr
fearful	dīrus	dwoiros	adI
feast	daps	daps	mas
feast	conuiuium	w∂ld	fem
feast	daps	westos	mas
feather	plūma	peróm	neu
feather	penna	petsnā	fem
feather	plūma	plousmā	fem
feeble	tener	tér∂nros	adI
feed	pāscō	pāskō	tr
feel	sentiō	awisdhijō	tr
feel	sentiō	qeisō	tr
feel ashamed	pudet	aichesājō	den
fence	saepēs	saipis	mas
ferment	fermentō	jesō
fern	filix	pratis	fem
ferret	uiuerra	wéiwersā	fem
few	paucum	pau	ind
field	arūm	arwom	neu
field	pratum	maghos	mas
fierce	saeuus	saiwos	adI
fierceness	tūlēs	tonslis	fem
fifteen	quindecim	penqdek∂m	ind
fifth	quintus	penqtos	adII
fifty	quinquaginta	penqadk∂mta	adII
fig	fīcus	bheikos	fem
fight	pugna	katos	mas
fight	certō	streudō	dur
file	līma	sleimā	fem
fill	pleō	(pím)plēmi	tr
fill	pleō	pléenāmi	inc
filth	situs	mergis	fem
finch	passer	spingjā	fem
find	inueniō	(wí)wermi	tr
find	nanciscor	n∂nkskomói	tr
finger	digitus	cistis	fem
finger	digitus	dék∂mtulos	mas
fingernail	unguis	onchis	mas
finish	finiō	cerjō	intr
fire	ignis	egnis	mas
fire	ignis	pēw∂r	neu
firm	firmus	omos	adI
first	prīmus	prāwos	adII
first	prīmus	prismos	sup
first (of two)	prīmus (a duobus)	próteros	adII
fish	piscis	piskis	mas
fist	pugnus	penqstis	fem
fist	pugnus	pougnos	mas
five	quinque	penqe	ind
fix	fixus	pastos	adI
flake	floccus	bhlokos	mas
flame	flamma	bhl∂gsmā	fem
flame	focus	bhokos
flask	obrussa	óbrusjā	fem
flat	plānus	lergos	adI
flat	plānus	plākos	adI
flat	plānus	plānos	adI
flat-footed	plautus	plautos	adI
flax	līnum	leinom	neu
flea	pūlēx	puslēks	mas
fleabane	pulicāria	dhwestus	fem
flee	fūgō	bhougājō	cau
flee	fugiō	bhugjō	dur
fleece	uellus	gnebhis	fem
flexible	flexibilis	lugnós	adI
flight	fūga	bhougā	fem
flimmer	fulgeō	merkō
flimmer	micō	míkāmi	dur
floor	contabulātiō	plārom	neu
flour	farīna	melwom	neu
flour	farīna	mlātóm	neu
flourishing	fluorescentia	ghlustis	adI
flow	fluxus	sorā	fem
flow	fluō	bhleucō	intr
flow	meō	mejājō	intr
flow	fluō	srewō	intr
flow	fluō	weisō	den
flow down	dēfluō	stelghō	intr
flower	flōs	bhlos	mas
flower	flos	bhlōtis	fem
fluoresce	superluceō	bhelō	intr
flush away	egerō	rínāmi	tr
flutter	coruscō	sp∂ndō	intr
fly	musca	muskā	fem
fly	aduolō	petō	intr
fly	uolō	c∂lājō	intr
foal	pulllus	kurnos
foam	spūma	spoimā	fem
foenum	hay	koinos	mas
fog	cālīgo	kalgōn
fog	nebula	nebhlā	fem
foggy, to be	nebulosus sum	wapējō	den
fold	ouīle	cijā	fem
fold	flectō	bheugō
fold	plicō	plékāmi	cau
follow	sequor	séqomoi	dur
food	pābulum	pasknis	mas
food	cibus	pitús	mas
food	pulmentum	westā	fem
foot	pēs	pods	mas
footprint	uestigium	lorgā	fem
footprint	peda	pedom	neu
forbid	uetō	wétāmi	tr
force	uis	stolgos	mas
force	impetus	tewos	neu
force	compellō	twenkō	tr
force in	intrūdō	treudō	cau
ford	portus	p∂rtus	mas
forearm	lacertus	lakertos	mas
forehead	frōns	bhrów∂ntis	mas
foreigner	aduena	ghostis	and
foremost	prīmus	prījós	adII
forest	silua	kselwā	fem
forest	lūcus	loukos	mas
forest	nemus	nemos	neu
forget	obliuiscor	ledō	tr
fork	furca	ghabhlom	neu
fork	furca	mergā	fem
form	forma	p∂rptus
formerly	ōlim	ōlim	ind
fortieth	quadragēsimus	q∂tw∂orádk∂mt∂mos	adII
fortification	mūnītūra	karkar	mas
fortify	mūniō	moiníjomoi	tr
forty	quadrāgintā	q∂tw∂orádk∂mta	adII
forty	quadraginta	q∂tworadk∂mta	adII
forwards	prō	prō(d)	ind
fountain	fons	awā	fem
fountain	fons	awen	neu
fountain	fons	dhontis	mas
four	quattuor	q∂tw∂res	adII
four days	quadriduum	q∂tw∂rdjówijom	neu
four each	quaternī	q∂trosns	adII
four hundred	quadrigenti	q∂tw∂rk∂mts	adII
four hundreth	quadrigentesimus	q∂tw∂rk∂mtémt∂mos	adII
four times	quater	q∂tros	ind
four years	quadriennium	q∂tw∂ratnjom	neu
fourteen	quattuordecim	q∂twrdek∂m	ind
fourth	quartus	q∂tw∂rtos	adII
fox	uulpēs	wolpis	fem
foxglove	digitālis purpurea	spjonos	fem
fragment	frūstum	bhroustom	neu
fragrant	fragrant	swekos	adI
fraud	dolus	dolos	mas
fray	diffilor	sremsō	intr
free	liber	léudheros	adI
free	recipiō	nosējō	cau
freeze	gelō	prunsō	tr
frequent	frequens	menghos	adI
friend	amīca	ámeikā	fem
friend	amīcus	amēiks	mas
fringe	antiae	antjs
from	ab	apo	ind
from	ex	extrōd	ind
from there	inde	imde	ind
from there	inde	totrōd	ind
from this side	hinc	kina	ind
from upwards	dē	dē	ind
from which	unde	jomde	rel
frost	pruīna	prusw	fem
fruit	fructus	ágrēnom	neu
fruit	frux	bhreugs	mas
fry	frigō	bhagjō	tr
fry	frigō	bhreicō	tr
frypan	sartagō	landhom	neu
fuck	futtuō	eibhō	intr
fuel	cibus ignis	dawtis	fem
fugacious	fugax	tokwós	adI
full	plēnus	plēnós	adI
full	plēnus	plētós	adI
fundament	fundamentum	upósēdjom	neu
fungus	fungus	swombhós	mas
furniture	suppellex	endósēdjom	neu
furrow	sulcus	p∂rk	fem
further	ulterus	ólteros	adI
furthest	ultimus	ólt∂mos	sup
gall	bīlis	bistlis	fem
gape	hiō	ghjājō	inc
garden	hortus	ghortos	mas
garlic	ālius	lujos	mas
gather	cogō	gercō	tr
gather	cōgō	katsājō	tr
gaul	gallus	galnos	mas
gaze	prospectō	qekō
gentle	gentilis	klisrós	adI
germ	germen	genm∂n	neu
get angry	stomachor	k∂rdíjomoi	prog
get cumulated	cumulō	derghō	intr
get dressed	induō	ewō	inc
get drunk	inebriō	pojējō	cau
get dry	serescō	térsomoi	intr
get encrusted	incrustor	kreupō	inc
get furious	saeuiō	sājō	den
get in a space	locus mihi est	telpō	intr
get injured	ferior	steugō	inc
get tired	dēfetiscor	kmāmi	prog
gift	dōnum	dōnom	neu
gird	cingō	kingō	tr
girl	puella	maqā	fem
give	dō	(dí)dōmi	tr
give birth	pariō	p∂rijō	tr
give joy	sōlor	sōljomoi	tr
give one's opinion	opīnor	tongējō	tr
glance	fascis	aug	fem
glare	splendeō	swelō	intr
glass	pōculum	pōtlom
glide	surrēpō	sleidhō	intr
glimmer	fulgeō	bherkō	den
glimmer	renideō	ghlēmi	intr
globe	globus	globhos	mas
gloomy	fuscus	mauros	adI
glory	gloria	klewos	neu
glove	digitābulum	ghesris	fem
glow	candō	kandō	tr
glowing ash	fauilla	geulom	neu
glue	glūten	gloiten	neu
gnat	cūlex	kūleks	mas
gnaw	frendō	ghrendō	intr
gnaw away	corrōdō	trowō	tr
go	eō	∂rskomói	intr
go	eō	eimi	dur
go aside	mē auertō	greubhō	dur
go away	abeō	cícāmi	inc
go down	descendō	keidō	intr
goat	caper	bokkos	mas
goat	capra	dighā	fem
goat	hircus	ghabhros	mas
goat	capra	kaprā	fem
goat	caper	kapros
goatish	haedīnus	ghaidīnós	adII
god	deus	deiwos	mas
goddess	dea	deiwā	fem
godly	dīūs	déiwijos	adII
gold	aurum	ausom	neu
gold	aurum	gh∂ltom	neu
golden	aureus	gh∂ltnós	adII
good	bonus	āsús	adI
good	bonus	bhilis	adI
good	bonus	dwenos	adI
good	bonus	mānos	adI
good	bonus	probhwos	adI
goos	anser	ghansōr	mas
grace	gratia	rātóm	mas
grain	grānum	grānom	neu
grand-daughter	neptis	neptis	fem
grandfather	auus	awos	mas
grandfather	aūs	dhēdhjos
grandmother	anus	anus	fem
grandmother	auia	áwijā	fem
grandson	nepos	nepēts	mas
granny	anus	annā	fem
grant	donō	p∂rnāmi	tr
grass	grāmen	ghrāsm∂n	neu
grass	herba	ghrāsom	∂b
grave	fossa	bhodsā	fem
gravel	calculus	geisā	fem
greasy	adipōsus	liprós	adI
green	uiridis	chelwos	mas
grey	cānus	kasnos	mas
grey	albogiluus	p∂lowós	adI
grey	pallidus	pálowos	adI
grey	rāuus	rāwos	adI
grill	cratis	kratis	fem
grind	conterō	ghrewō	cau
grind	molō	melō	tr
groan	uncō	onkājō
groin	inguen	∂ncéen	fem
groin	intestīnum	ili	neu
groom	pubēs	pusbhis	mas
groove	sulcus	solkos	mas
ground	fundus	bhudhnos	mas
ground	solea	swólejā	fem
ground	tellus	telsus	fem
group	caterua	qelos	neu
grow	crēscō	krēskō	prog
grow	crēscō	∂rdhjō	intr
grow fat	pinguescō	peidō	prog
grow thin	tenuescō	kerkō	inc
growl	grunniō	ghelijō	intr
grown	grandis	gr∂ndhís	adI
grumble	fremō	ghremō	intr
grumble	ringor	wr∂ngomói	intr
grunt	fremō	bhremō	intr
grunt	grunniō	grundijō	intr
guerrilla	guerrilla	bhogā	fem
guest	hospes	ghóstipots	adII
guile	astus	astus	mas
guilty	sons	sontis	adI
gull	mergus	medgós	mas
gullet	gula	c∂lā	fem
gulp	lurcō	sl∂rgjō	tr
gum	gingiua	gengā	fem
gush	scateō	skatējō	dur
gush up	exuberō	bhrendhō	intr
hail	grandō	grōdis	mas
hair	capillum	ghaitā	fem
hair	capillum	kaisrom	neu
hair	caesariēs	kerom
hair	pilus	pilos	mas
hair	capillum	rewm∂n	neu
hair	uellus	welnos	neu
hair	caesariēs	wondhos
hair (strong)	saeta	saitā	fem
hairdresser	tonsōr	tonstṓr	adII
hairless	caluus	kalwos	adI
half	medius	sēmi-	adII
hall	uestibulum	werstidhlom	neu
ham	perna	persnā	fem
hammer	malleus	matlā	fem
hammer	malleus	ordhos	mas
hand	manus	ghēs∂r	neu
hand	manus	ghestos	neu
hand	manus	m∂nus	fem
handle	ansa	ansā
handle	stīua	ghetlā	fem
handle	manubrium	skāpos	mas
handle	gerō	qérumi	dur
hang	suspendō	lembō	tr
hang	pendō	pendō	tr
happen	accidō	leidō	pro
hard	dūrus	kartús	adI
harm	damnō	dápnāmi	tr
harm	damnum	skodhos	mas
harn	urīna	w∂reinā
harrow	occa	ókētā	fem
harsh	asper	drismós	adI
harvest	segēs	∂snātis	fem
haste	coactus	spoudā	tr
hasten	percurrō	bhūsjō	intr
hasten	festīnō	skegō	intr
hatchet	bipennis	tōkslos	mas
hate	ōdi	odjō (ōda)	tr
hatred	ōdium	ōdjom	neu
have	habeō	eikō	tr
have fever	febriō	cerō	den
have taste	sapiō	s∂pijō	tr
have wrinkle	rugātus sum	g∂rbējō	den
haven	portus	kopnos	mas
hawk	accipiter	ōqípteros	mas
hazel	corilus	kósolos	fem
hazelnut	abellāna	árusā	fem
head	caput	ghebhlā	fem
head	caput	kaput	neu
head	caput	kers∂n	neu
head of cereal	spīca	speikā	fem
head towards	uergō	wergō	den
health	ualētūdō	kóilutāts	fem
healthy	sānus	koilús	adI
healthy	sānus	jekos	adI
heap	struēs	struwis	fem
hear	clueō	kluwējō	den
hear	audiō	gheusō
hear	audiō	kélnumi	tr
hearing	audītus	kleum∂n	neu
heart	cor	k∂rdi / k∂rdjom	neu
hearth	fornus	chornos	mas
heat	calor	cheros	neu
heat	adoleō	olējō	cau
heath	silua	kaitom	neu
heave	erigō	erō	tr
heaven	caelum	kémelom	neu
heavy	grāuis	c∂r(āw)ús	adI
heavy	brūtus	cr∂tos	adI
hedgehog	er	eghjos	mas
hedgehog	ēr	ghēr	mas
heel	calx	persā	fem
height	summum	kolmos	mas
hello	heus!	alā!	excl
helmet	galea	kelmos	mas
help	adiuuō	jewō	intr
hen	gallīna	kerkos	fem
henbane	hyosciamus	bhélunā	fem
herb	herba	lubhjā	fem
herd	grex	gregs	mas
herdsman	pāstor	cówqolos	mas
herdsman	pāstor	kerdhjos	mas
here	hic	kei	ind
heron	ardea	árdejā	fem
hesitate	uacillō	kénkomoi	intr
hide	cēlō	kēlājō	cau
hide	abdī	keudhō
high	altus	altós	adI
high	altus	bh∂rghos	adI
high	superus	úperos
high	altus	úpselos	mas
hill	collis	kolnis	fem
hill	mons	montis	mas
himself	se	se	pron
himself	sē	sēd	ind
hinge	cardō	k∂rdéen
hint	posterus	apóteros	adI
hip	coxa	koksā	fem
hip	lumbus	londhwos	mas
his	suus	séwijos	adII
hiss	stridō	streidō	dur
hit	contusiō	bhenjom
hit	quatiō	bh∂tjō	tr
hit	tundō	bhlagō	tr
hit	flīgō	bhleicō	intr
hit	quatiō	bhutjō	tr
hit	cūdō	keudō	tr
hit	offendō	slakō	tr
hit	quatiō	steupō	tr
hoard	refugium	kusdhos
hold	possideō	potējō	tr
hold	retineō	seghō	tr
hole	orificium	lugjā	fem
hollow	cauitas	dholos	mas
hollow	uōla	dhónejā	fem
hollow	fouea	ghéwejā
hollow	cauus	kowos	adI
hollow out	excauō	skerbhō	tr
holy	sanctus	noibhos	adII
holy	sacer	kwentos	adII
holy	sacer	sakros	adI
honey	mel	melit	neu
honour	mactō	m∂gtājō	tr
hoof	ungula	kophos	mas
hook	ancus	ankos	mas
hook	hamus	kenkos	mas
hook	hāmus	khamos	mas
hook	uncus	onkos	mas
hoopoe	upupa	ópopā	fem
hope	spes	spes	fem
horn	cornū	k∂rnu	neu
hornbeam	carpīnus betulus	g∂rbeinā
hornless	incornis	kemos	adII
horse	eqūs	ekwos	mas
horse	equus	markos	mas
hostage	obses	gheislos	mas
house	domus	domos	fem
house	domus	weiks	mas
housemaster	erus	esos	m
hovel	gurgustium	c∂rcestjom	neu
hover	pullulo	prewō	dur
how	quālis	qālis	adII
how	ut	qota	int
how	quōmodo	jota	rel
how many	quot	qot(j)s	int
howbeit	autem	aw	ind
howgreat	quantus	qw∂ntos	pron
howl	ululō	ululājō	intr
humble	humilis	wailos	mas
humiliate	humiliō	neidō	tr
hump	gibba	gibbā	fem
hundred	centum	k∂mtom	ind
hunger	famēs	dh∂mis	fem
hunger	fames	ghrēdhus	mas
hunt	uēnātus	woitā	fem
hunt	uēnor	(wí)weimi	tr
hurry	festinō	sperghō	intr
hurry	accelerō	speudō	tr
hut	casa	kleitis	fem
hut	mapālia	koutā	fem
I	egō	egō	pron
ice	gelū	eisom	neu
ice	gelū	gelu	neu
ice	glaciēs	gl∂gjēs	fem
ice	glaciēs	jegis	mas
icicle	crustula	krustā	fem
icicle	stīria	stejsjā	fem
ill	aeger	aigros	adI
illuminate	illūminō	bhnumi	tr
imbue	inficiō	magō	tr
immediate	immediātus	ūdhús	adI
immediately	citō	kitōd	ind
immortal	immortālis	∂nmrótijos	adII
impel	pellō	peldō	tr
important	sērius	swērús	adI
impregnate	tingō	tengō	tr
in	in-	en	ind
in excess	magis etiam	∂ndhi	ind
in the middle	in mediā parte	meti
in the morning	mane	prōi	ind
incise	insecō	ghelō	intr
incision	incisiō	bh∂rmā
incite	sollicitō	∂rghējō	tr
incite	incitō	trenkō	tr
inclined	prōnus	nīqos	adII
include	inclūdō	glembhō	cau
increase	augmentum	augm∂n	neu
increase	augō	augō	cau
indeed	quippe	qidpe	ind
indication	indicātiō'	deiktis	fem
indulge in	indulgeō	dh∂lgējō	intr
infere	dēdūcō	densō	tr
inferior	inferior	níiteros	adI
inflate	inflor	bhleidō	intr
inflate	infō	pusjō	tr
inform	ēnuntiō	steumi	tr
insect	insectus	empis	fem
inside	in	endo	ind
inside	intus	entós	ind
inside	interior	ēt∂r	mas
insipid	insipidus	merwos
inspect	inspiciō	skewō	tr
insult	insultō	pējō	tr
intellect	intellectus	menm∂n	neu
intelligence	sensus	s∂nstus
intelligent	callidus	glēkis	adI
intend	intendō	m∂nsjomói	neu
internal	interior	énteros	adI
interval	interuallum	énterom	neu
intestine	intestīnus	énteros	adI
intestine	intestīna	ghoros	mas
intestiones	intestīnum	routos	mas
invoke	inuocō	kiklēskō	tr
iron	ferrum	isarnom	neu
irritate	irritō	prousijō	intr
island	insula	enslā	fem
item	item	itim	ind
iuxta	close to	p∂ra	ind
ivy	hedera	khéderos	fem
jaws	fauces	gopos	mas
join	iungō	jungō	tr
joint	artus	artus	mas
joint	artus	koubos	mas
joke	nuga	ghloumos
joke	nugor	ghleumi	intr
journey	itō	itājō	freq
joy	gaudium	gaudhjom	neu
joyful	alacer	rōdos	adI
judge	iudex	jousdiks	adII
juice	succus	sapos	fem
juice	sūcus	soukos	mas
jump	saltō	rebhājō	intr
jump	saltō	dhérnumoi	intr
jump	saliō	leigō	intr
juniper	picea	lentos	fem
juniper	iuniperus	toksos	fem
just	iūstus	joustos	adI
keel	carīna	kareinā	fem
keep	conseruō	bherghō	tr
keep	praeseruō	kadhō	tr
key	clāuis	klāws	fem
kidney	rēnis	neghrōn	mas
kill	necō	nékāmi	tr
kin	genus	genos	neu
kindness	beneficium	prósēdjom	neu
king	rex	regs	mas
kingdom	regnum	regnom	neu
kingly	regius	regjos	adII
kiss	basium	kusis	mas
kiss	sauia	sówijā	fem
kiss	osculō	bhusājō	tr
knead	commisceō	bheurō	tr
knead	depsō	debhō	tr
knee	genū	genu	neu
knee	genuflector	teupō	inc
knock	battuō	bheldō	intr
knot	nōdus	nōdos	mas
knot	nodus	osbhos	mas
know	nōscō	(gí)gnōskō (gnōwa)	tr
know	sciō	skijō	tr
known	nōtus	gnōtós	adI
lack	egeō	egējō	den
lack	careō	k∂sējō	den
lack	dēsum	meitō	den
ladder	scāla	skandslā	fem
ladle	trua	trowā	fem
lake	lacus	ágherom	neu
lake	lacus	laqos	mas
lamb	agnus	agnos	mas
lamb	ueruēx	w∂rēn	mas
lame	claudus	klaudos	adI
lamp	lampās	lapsā	fem
land	ager	agros	mas
land	campus	kampos	mas
land	regiō	londhom	neu
land	terra	oud∂n	neu
land estate	fundus	kāpos	mas
landlady	domina	dómūnā	fem
landlord	dominus	dómūnos	mas
lap	gremium	gremjom	neu
lapwing	uanellus	cówijā	fem
large fish	squalus	sqalos	mas
last	ultimus	ópitjos	adII
last	porstrēmus	póst∂mos	sup
last year	anno praeterito	péruti	ind
late	tarde	lodi	neu
later	posterus	pósteros	adI
laugh	cachinnus	khákhatnos	mas
laugh	rīdeō	w∂risdējō	intr
law	lēx	legs	fem
law	iūs	jous	neu
lax	salmō	loksos	mas
lay	strām∂n	strām∂n
lazy	pīger	leskos	adI
lead	dūxī	nijóm
lead	plumbum	plúwaidhom	neu
lead	addūcō	wedhō	tr
leader	dux	deuks	and
leaf	folium	bhuljom	neu
leaf	folium	leups	mas
lean	nītor	gneichō	intr
leap	saltus	rebhā	fem
leap	saltō	kekō	intr
learn	dīscō	didkskō	tr
leather	corium	korjom	neu
leave	linquō	linqō	tr
leek	porrum	p∂rsom	neu
left	laeūs	laiwos	adII
left	sinister	soujós	adII
left-handed	scaeuus	skaiwós	adI
leg	crus	kanmā	fem
leg	crūs	krous	neu
legal suit	lis	stlītis	fem
legbent	uatius	watjos	adI
legitimate	legitimus	t∂nktos	adI
lend	commodō	gherō	tr
lend	commodātus	loiqnom	neu
length	longitudō	d∂l∂nghotā	fem
leprosy	leprae	trudskā	fem
less	minus	mínusi	ind
less	sētius	séetjosi
lessen	minuō	sewājō	prog
leuer	uectis	weghtis	fem
lick	lingō	linghō	tr
lie	iaceō	keimoi	inc
lie	cubō	kúbāmi	den
lie	mentior	leughō	intr
lie	occubō	leghō	den
lie open	pateō	p∂tējō	den
life	uita	cejtā	fem
lifetime	saeculum	saitlom	neu
ligament	ligāmen	tenos	neu
light	leuis	l∂nghros	adI
light	leuis	leghús	adI
light	lux	leuks	fem
light	lūmen	leuksm∂n	neu
lighting	illuminātiō	bhānom
like	libet (mihi)	lubhējō	tr
lily	liilium	leiljom	neu
limb	membrum	karōn	fem
lime	calx	kalkis
lime	tilia	leipā	fem
limit	līmes	bhrēunā	neu
limp	claudicō	sk∂ngjō	intr
line	linea	streibā	fem
line	stria	strigjā	fem
link	nōdō	nedō	tr
link	ligō	wédhnumi	tr
lion	leō	wlewā	fem
lip	labrum	ghelnom	neu
lip	labrum	l∂bjom	neu
lip	labrum	mēknos	mas
liquid	latex	latēks	mas
liquid	serum	serom	neu
liquid	liquor	w∂leiqos	neu
liquid (to be)	liqueō	w∂liqējō	den
list	seriēs	rēim∂n	neu
listen	audiō	kleumi	neu
little	paucus	paukos	adI
little owl	noctua	warnā	fem
live	uīuō	cejwō	dur
liver	iecur	jeq∂r	neu
load	onus	onos	neu
lobster	langusta	k∂mertos	mas
lock	cirrus	ghrendhos	neu
lock of hair	crīnis	pulgā	fem
lofty	excelsus	mlōdhrós	adI
long	longus	d∂l∂nghos	mas
long for	aueō	gheidhō	tr
long hair	caesariēs	káis∂rjēs	fem
longer time	diutius	peros	ind
long-lasting	sērus	sēros	adI
look	speciō	spekjō	tr
look like	uideor	prepō	intr
loom	textrīnum	weim∂n	neu
lot	copia	koupnā	fem
lot	cumulus	teusm∂n	neu
lotus	lotus	kémeros	fem
loud	penetrans	torós	adI
louse	pedis	lousēn	fem
love	amō	kāmi	tr
love	amō	stergō	tr
love	amor	wenos	neu
love	amō	amājō	tr
love potion	uenēnum	wenēsnom	neu
lovely	cārus	koimos	adI
lovely	cārus	leubhos	adI
lower	inferus	nérteros	adII
luck	fortūna	toughā	fem
lung	pulmō	pleumōn	mas
luxury	sumptus	ghloidos	mas
lynx	lynx	louksos	mas
magic	magicus	kudnos	adI
magic	uenēficiumj	soitos	mas
magic force	magia	kwedos	neu
magnanimous	magnanimus	m∂gnán∂mos	adI
magpie	pīcus	peikos	mas
maid	uirgō	ándhesā	fem
maim	truncō	skutājō	tr
make afraid	terreō	tersējō	intr
make bitter	acerbō	streubhō	tr
make hot	foueō	dhochējō	cau
make money	lucror	pelō	tr
make noise	strepō	bhelō	intr
make noise	strepō	strepō	intr
make up	perspiciō	d∂rkjō	tr
male	mās	wersis	mas
man	homō	dhghomōn	mas
man	homō	mánnusos	mas
man	uir	woiros	mas
mane	crīnis	krisnis	fem
manner	modus	koitús	fem
mantle	sagum	sagom	neu
maple	acer	ákeris	fem
maple	acer	kleinos	fem
march	itus	c∂mtis	fem
march	itus	oimos	mas
mare	equa	ekwā	fem
marrow	medulla	smerwā	fem
marry	nūbō	sneubhō	tr
marsh	mariscus	máreskos	mas
mass	globus	kōmos	mas
mass	mōlēs	mōlis	fem
mass	massa	sloidhos	mas
massacre	trucidatiō	agrā	fem
mast	mālus	masdos	neu
master	dominus	potis	mas
mate	collēga	bhendhros	mas
mate	sodālis	dāmos	mas
mattock	ligō	sligōn	mas
maxilla	maxilla	genus	neu
mead	mel	medhu	neu
meager	petilus	pét∂los	adI
measure	mensūra	mestis	fem
measure	mensūra	metrom	neu
measure	modus	modos	neu
measure	metior	mēmi	tr
measure	mētior	mētíjomoi	tr
meat	carō	memsom	∂neu
meet	congredior	katsjomoi	intr
meet	accurrō	mimdō	inc
meeting	congregātiō	komnom	neu
melodious	melodicus	bhendos	adI
melt	tābēscō	tādhēskō	intr
memory	memoria	menos	neu
memory	memoria	smemorjā	fem
mention	mentiō	m∂ntos	mas
mention	allūdō	cotējō	tr
metal	metallum	raudos	neu
midday	meridiēs	médhidjōws	mas
middle	medius	medhjos	adII
middle (in the)	ob	obhi	ind
middling	sublestus	leswos	adI
might	potestās	maghtis	fem
mild	mitis	loisós	adI
mild	comēs	moilos	adI
milk	lac	glakti	neu
milk	mulgeō	molgējō	tr
mill	molīna	moleinā	fem
millet	milium	meljom	neu
millstone	mola	c∂rwenros	mas
mind	mens	m∂ntis	fem
miracle	mirāculum	smeirātlom	neu
miserable	miser	treughos	adI
missing	absente	s∂nterí	ind
mist	uapor	mighlā	fem
mistletoe	uiscum	wiskom	neu
mistress	domina	potnjā	fem
mix	misceō	miskējō	cau
mix	permisceō	krāmi	tr
model	fingō	dhinghō	tr
modest	modestus	nesros	adI
molder	putēscō	pujō	inc
moment	mōmentum	mēqos	neu
money	pecūnia	alchos	mas
monster	monstrum	ansus	mas
month	mēnsis	mēnsis	mas
moo	mugiō	mugijō	intr
moon	lūna	louksnā	fem
more	magis	m∂gsi	ind
more than that	immō	immō	adII
morning	mane	amros - amrei	mas
morning	matina	wēsros	mas
mortar	mortārium	m∂rtāsjom	neu
moss	muscus	muskos
mother	mamma	ammā	fem
mother	māter	mātéer	fem
mother-in-law	socrus	swekrús	fem
motley	uarius	p∂rknos	adI
mould	fūtis	gheutis	fem
mound	tumulus	tumlós	mas
mount	scandō	skandō	dur
mountain	mons	ceri	neu
mountain	mons	pérkūnjom	neu
mountain-path	callis	k∂ldis	fem
mouse	glis	gleis	mas
mouse	mūs	meus	neu
mouth	ōs	os	neu
mouthful	bucca	bukkā	fem
move	cieō	∂rnumi	intr
move	moueō	djejō	intr
move	mutō	meicō	intr
move	moueō	mowējō	cau
move	migrō	pelkō	intr
move away	spernō	sp∂rnō	cau
movement	mōmentum	∂rnutis	fem
much	multum	pelu	ind
mucus	mūcus	moukos
mud	caenum	korkos	adI
mud	līmus	leimos	mas
mud	lutum	mūtrom	neu
mud	lūtum	penom	neu
mud	līmus	sleimos	mas
multitude	copiae	luktos	mas
mundane	mundānus	cécālos	adI
murder	interficiō	chenmi	tr
murmur	murmurō	d∂rdrājō	intr
murmur	murmurō	m∂rmrājō
muscle	mūsculus	kīkus	mas
muscle	mūs	meus / muskós	neu
must	mustus	mudstos	mas
mutilate	mutilō	kersō	tr
mutilated	mutilus	klambós	adI
mutter	muttiō	muttijō	den
mutual	mutuus	moitwos	adII
myop	myops	neukos	adI
mystery	mysterium	kelgā	fem
nail	clāuus	klawos	mas
nail	clāuus	onghlos	mas
nail	pangō	p∂ngō	tr
naked	nūdus	nócodos	adII
name	nōmen	nōm∂n	neu
name	praenōmen	práinōm∂n	neu
name	nōminō	k∂lējō	tr
name	nōminō	nōmnājō	tr
nates	natis	n∂tis	fem
navel	umbilicus	onbhlos	mas
near	propinquus	nedjos	adI
near	prope	proqēd	ind
neck	ceruix	knokos	mas
neck	collus	mongos	fem
neck	ceruix	monos	mas
neck	collum	kolsos	mas
need	necesse est	∂nkējō	tr
needle	acus	akos	neu
neighbour	uīcīnus	épijos	adII
nest	nīdus	nisdos	mas
net	rēte	grebhos	mas
net	nassa	nedsā	fem
nettle	urtīca	nedis	fem
network	gerra	gersā	fem
never	nunquam	neqom	ind
new	noūs	new(ij)os	adI
nigh	propinquus	proqos	adI
night	nox	noqtis	neu
night bird	strīx	streigs	fem
nightmare	somnus terrorificus	morā	fem
nine	nouem	new∂n	ind
ninth	nouenus (nōnus)	néw∂nos	adII
nipple	tetta	spēnos	mas
nit	ouum	sknidā	fem
no	nē	nē	ind
noble	nōbilis	atlos	adI
noble	nōbilis	m∂glos	adI
nobody, nothing	nemō, nihil	neqis, neqid	pron
nod	nuō	newō	intr
noisy	strepitosus	bholós	adI
nord	septentriō	skouros	mas
nose	nārēs	nāsis	fem
not	haud	ghawōd	ind
not	nē	mē	ind
not at all	nequaquam	nei	ind
nourish	alō	alō
now	nunc	nū
now	nunc	numki	ind
nut	nux	knouks	fem
oak	robus	aigā	fem
oak	quercus	perqos	fem
oak tree	quercus suber	grōbhos	fem
oakum	stūpā	stoupā	fem
oar	rēmus	retsmos	mas
oat	auēna	awigsnā	fem
oath	sacramentum	loughjom	neu
oath	sacrāmentum	oitos	mas
obedience	oboedientia	kleustis	fem
obey	oboediō	kleusō	tr
obscurity	obscuritās	temos	neu
observe	seruō	s∂rwājō	tr
observe	tueor	téwomoi	tr
occipital	occipitium	moldhā	fem
occupation	cūra	koisā	fem
odor	odor	odós	mas
of this side	citer	kíteros	adI
oil	oleum	solpos	mas
oint	unguō	oncō	tr
oint	linō	linō	tr
ointment	unguen	oncēn	neu
old	senex	gerlós	adI
old	senex	senēks	mas
old (to become)	sēnēscō	gerō	prog
omoplate	scapulae	skubtis	fem
on	insuper	epi	ind
on account of	causā	rōdhí	ind
once	semel	semli	ind
one	ūnus	oinos	adII
one	ūnus	semos	mas
one-eyed	unioculis	kolnos	adII
onion	caepa	kaipā	fem
onion	caepa	krémusom	neu
open	aperiō	werjō	tr
open land	rūs	rows	neu
opening	caula	kaghlā	fem
opinate	censeō	k∂nsējō	tr
opinion	sententia	dhōmós	mas
oppress	angō	amghō	tr
oppress	opprimō	ipjō
or	aut	awti	ind
or	ue	we	encl
oral	buccale	goulos	mas
orange	badius	badjos	adI
order	ordō	kerdhos	mas
orphan	orbus	orbhos	adII
otherwise	autem	awtim	ind
otherwise	altrinsecus	perti	ind
otter	lutra	w∂drā	fem
our	noster	∂nserós	adII
out	ex	uti, ud	neu
outdoors	forās	rew	ind
outside	ex	ek(sí)
over	super	(s)úperi	ind
over	super	uperi	ind
over there	ultrā	oltrōd	ind
owen	fornus	uqnós	mas
owl	noctua	káwonā	fem
own	possideō	gh∂bhējō	tr
ox	bos	uksōn	and
pain	dolor	edunā
pain	dolor	kormos	mas
paint	pingō	pingō	tr
palate	palātum	stōm∂n	neu
pale	tenuis	bhlendhos	adI
palisade	uallum	edh∂r	neu
palm	palma	p∂lmā	fem
panic	horror	mórmoros	mas
parent	genitor	gentṓr	mas
part	pars	aitis	fem
part	pars	p∂rtis	fem
parterre	līra	leisā	fem
particle	particula	bhrustóm	neu
partridge	perdix	kákabā	fem
pass	perambulō	trepō	tr
pass	transeō	jāmi	intr
passage	trāiectiō	teqom	neu
path	sēmita	sentos	neu
patient	patiens	tlātjos	adI
paunch	pantex	p∂ndēks	mas
pause	cessātiō	rowā	fem
pay attention	faveō	ghowējō	tr
pea	cicer	kikēr	mas
peace	pax	pags	fem
pebble	calculus	ghrowā	fem
pee	uriina	moighos	mas
peel	glūbō	gleubhō	tr
peg	cippus	kippos	mas
penetrate	penetrō	neghō	tr
penis	pēnis	bhalnós	mas
penis	pēnis	lalu	ind
penis	mūtō	moutos	mas
penis	pēnis	pesnis	mas
penis	pēnis	poutos	mas
penthouse	cēnaculum	kéliknom	neu
penury	lack	loigós	mas
people	populus	teutā	fem
people	uulgus	wolgos	neu
pepper	piper	píperi	neu
perch	perca	dhghusā	fem
perfect	perfectus	kómsq∂rtos	adI
perform	efficiō	sénumi	tr
perhaps	forsan	an	ind
period	aetas	áiwesos	mas
permissive	permissīiuus	m∂ldhos	adI
persecute	persequor	w∂rnāmi	tr
persecute	persequor	jeghō	tr
perspire	spirō	spoisājō	intr
phantom	phasma	lemsos	mas
pickaxe	sacēna	s∂kesnā	fem
piece	fragmentum	p∂rsnā	fem
pig	porcus	porkos	mas
pig	sūs	sews	mas
pig	porcus	trogos	mas
pike	ueru	ceru	neu
pile	acerūs	ákeswos	mas
pile	sublīca	kolnom	neu
pile up	struō	strewō	tr
pillage	diripiō	wélumi	tr
pillar	sublicā	stobhos	mas
pin down	siffilō	gangō	intr
pin down	carinō	karnājō	tr
pinetree	pīnus	bharwos	fem
pinetree	abiēs	dhanwos	fem
pink	rosaceus	elwos
pinnacle	pinaculus	stertos	mas
pintle	cnodax	bendlā	mas
pipe	canna	strudsmā	fem
piss	mingō	minghō	intr
pit	maciō	mākājō	cau
pit	scrobis	skrobhis	fem
pitch	pix	peiks	fem
place	locus	stānom	neu
place	locus	stlokos	mas
place	sinō	sinō	tr
place	condō	stānējō	tr
plait	plectō	plektō	tr
plait	plectō	resgō	tr
plane	ēfodiō	glabhō	tr
planet	planēta	rewis	mas
planitiēs	campus	plātom	neu
plate	lamina	stlām∂n	neu
platform	catasta	stātlom	neu
plea	prex	preks	fem
pleasant	amoenus	seljos	adI
pleasant	suauis	swādús	adI
pleasant	amoenus	moghjos	adI
pleasantly	libenter	ghornim	ind
plough	arātrum	arātrom	neu
plough	arō	arājō	tr
plough animal	iūmentum	aghjā	fem
plough handle	stīua	steiwā	fem
ploughshare	uomer	wogsmis
pluck	uellicō	gnebhō	tr
plum	prunum	sloiwom	neu
plump	crassus	kratsos
pod	siliqua	gherghros	fem
pod	siliqua	sk∂liqā	fem
poet	uatēs	wātis	mas
point	punctus	ardis	fem
point	cuspis	glōghis	fem
poison	uenēnum	woisos	mas
pole	asser	pēlwis	fem
pole	pertica	pertā	fem
policeman	tresuir	worós	mas
polish	līmō	sleimājō	tr
pond	lacus	stagnom	neu
ponder	medeor	médomoi	intr
poodle	lāma	lāmā	fem
pool	stagnum	staknom	neu
poor	pauper	ormos	adI
poppy	papauer	mkōn	mas
porridge	puls	poltos	mas
portico	antae	ants
portico	porticus	p∂rgā	fem
portion	portiō	bhagos	mas
position	status	st∂tus	mas
post	mēta	mētā	fem
post	sparus	sparos	mas
posterity	subolēs	troghos	mas
pot	aula	auqslā	fem
pot	catīnus	kumbhā	fem
potter wheel	tornus	dhroghnom	neu
pouch	crumēna	makēn	mas
pour	fundō	ghundō	cau
power	potentia	galnos	mas
powerful	potens	kúw∂ros	adI
praise	laus	loudis	mas
praise	superbia	molpā	fem
praise	laudō	cerō	tr
pray	rogō	chedhō	tr
pray	precor	meldhō	intr
pray	ōrō	ōrājō	tr
prayer	prex	moldhos	mas
precarious	precārius	dúsōpis	adI
preceding	anterior	preistos	adI
precipitate	praecipitor	krepō	intr
precision	subtilitās	nom∂r	neu
predator	praedator	dhaunos	adI
prepare	praeparō	adējō	tr
presence	praesentia	weidos	neu
present	praesens	práiloghos	adII
press	premō	bhríkāmi	tr
press	imprimō	dhenghō	tr
press	premō	premō	tr
press	premō	presō	tr
press tightly	comprimō	kamō	tr
prevail	praeualeō	cínāmi	intr
previous	praecēdens	kintos	adII
previous	anterior	préwijos	adI
price	pretium	pretjom	neu
prick	centrum	kentrom	neu
prickle	agna	aknā	fem
prickle	spīna	speiksnā	fem
priest	flāmen	bhlaghm∂n	neu
priest	sacerdos	sákrodhots	mas
principal	prīmus	promos	sup
productive	fēlix	dhēlēiks	adI
profession	ars	kerdos	neu
profit	compendium	bhéwedā	fem
progeny	progeniēs	teukm∂n	neu
promise	spondeō	spondējō	tr
promontory	promontorium	akrom	neu
promontory	tumulus	prostos	mas
promote	foueō	káknumi	tr
property	possessiō	rentus	fem
property	possessiō	selwā	fem
propice	idōneus	sinísteros	adI
propiety	rēs	rēis	fem
prosper	maturō	mājō	prog
protect	tueor	alkējō	tr
protect	protegō	pālājō	tr
protest	querēla	glagh	fem
proud	superbus	bhorsos	adI
proud	superbus	meudos	adI
prove	probō	probhwājō	tr
provide	asportō	porējō	cau
provide	parō	sepō	tr
provision	prouisiō	penos	neu
pubescent	pūbes	m∂rjos	mas
pulse	erūm	ercom	neu
pumice	pūmex	poimēiks	mas
punch	pungō	pungō	tr
puncture	figō	dheicō	tr
punish	puniō	membhō	tr
punishment	poena	woinā	fem
pure	castus	k∂stos	adI
pure	pūrus	powros	adI
pus	pūs	puwos	neu
push	agō	agō	cau
push	impellō	kelō	tr
pustule	pustula	pustlā	fem
put	ponō	dhejō	tr
put	pōnō	stelō	tr
put forth	prodō	prṓddōmi	tr
put in order	ordinō	tagjō	tr
put off	exuō	nocējō	cau
put on	mentior	m∂ntíjomoi	tr
quadruped	quadrupēs	q∂tw∂rpods	adII
qualify	qualificō	tādējō	tr
queen	regīna	regeinā	fem
question	quaestiō	p∂rkskā	fem
quick	celer	peimis	adI
quick	uelox	tw∂rtos	adI
quickly	citō	bhersi	ind
raffle	sortior	kleutō	tr
rag	pannus	kentom	mas
rag	pannus	pannos	mas
rage	rabō	r∂bhjō	intr
rain	pluō	plewō	intr
rain	pluuia	plówijā	fem
raise	tollō	t∂lnō	tr
ram	ariēs	agós	mas
ram	ariēs	erjos	mas
range	ordinō	kerdhō	tr
range	ordinō	réknumi	tr
rank	agmen	agm∂n	neu
raven	raucus	korwos	adI
raw	crūdus	ōmós	adI
ray	radium	r∂djom	neu
raze	rādō	gneibhō	tr
razor	nouācula	ksnowātlā	fem
reach	apīscor	∂pjō	inc
reach	ic(i)ō	aikō	tr
reach	ic(i)ō	ikjō	tr
realise	percipiō	pretō	tr
reap	metō	metō	tr
reason	ratiō	r∂tis	fem
reason	arguō	argujō	tr
receive	accipiō	tekō	tr
receive	accipiō	gh∂ndō	tr
recent	recens	kainós	adI
recitate	recitō	spelō	intr
reckon	reor	rēmoi	neu
reckon	computō	puwējō	tr
recline	accumbō	kumbō	intr
recommend	suādeō	swādējō	cau
red	rūber	dherghos	adI
red	ruber	rudhrós	adI
red (-haired)	rūfus	reudhos	adI
red ochre	minium	miljom	neu
reduce	minuō	mínumi	cau
region	pagus	pagos	mas
rejoice	gaudeō	gaudhējō	intr
rejoice oneself	delector	túsjomoi	intr
relative	familiāris	pāsós	mas
relative	familiāris	sweljos	mas
relax	requiescō	remō	intr
relief	podium	podjom	neu
religion	religiō	perístānom	neu
remain	maneō	m∂nējō	den
remain (water)	remaneō	stagō	den
remaining	reliquus	loiqós	adII
remember	memini	mímnāskō (memna)	intr
remnant	reliquiae	atiloiqos	mas
renew	nouō	newājō	tr
renowned	nōbilis	mōros	adI
rent	locō	keusō	tr
repair	sarciō	s∂rkijō	tr
repellent	repellens	aghlós	adI
replication	effigĭēs	aimom	neu
reprove	orbiurgō	kudājō	intr
reputation	reputātiō	kléum∂ntom	neu
request	quaerō	áisoskō	tr
require	postulō	bhedhō	intr
residence	sedēs	sedos	neu
resin	bitūmen	cetus	mas
resin	resīna	peitus	mas
resonate	tonō	tónāmi	intr
resound	personō	boukājō	intr
resound	resonō	gewō	intr
respect	uereor	w∂réejomoi	tr
rest	requiescō	ermi	intr
rest	quiēscō	qejēskō	intr
rest	requiescō	t∂lijō	den
restrict	obstringō	strengō
result	ēueniō	tenkō	prog
retain	retineō	dhermi	tr
retaliation	ulciscātiō	qoin	fem
retire	sēcēdō	spleighō	intr
revenge	represalia	apóqoitis	fem
rheum	grāmiae	grammā	fem
rheum	lippa	lippā	fem
rhyme	rīma	reimā	fem
rib	costa	kostā	fem
ribbon	taenia	tenā	fem
rich	dīues	deiwots	adI
riches	ops	ops	mas
ride	equitō	reidhō	tr
right	dexter	déksteros	adII
right	rectus	regtós	mas
right way	uia recta	jeunis	fem
rigid (to be)	stupeō	stupējō	den
ring	anus	anos	mas
ring	anus	krenghos	mas
rite	ritus	adm∂n	neu
river	flūius	dānus	mas
river ford	uadum	wadhom	neu
road	uia	kelus	fem
roam	uagor	w∂gjomoi	intr
roar	gemitus	dhrēnos	mas
roar	rugiō	rugijō	intr
roaring	fremitus	ghromos	mas
rob	fūror	sterō	tr
rock	rūpēs	kárrēkā	fem
rock	saxum	ondos	neu
rock	rūpēs	pelsā	fem
rock	trepidō	k∂rdjō	intr
rod	uirga	cosdhos	mas
rod	lituus	litwos	mas
rod	ferula	slatā	fem
roebuck	gazella	jorkos	mas
roe-deer	alcēs	alkis	mas / fem
roof	tectus	robhos	mas
room	cubiculum	kētjā	fem
root	rādix	rādēiks	fem
root	rādix	w∂rdjā	fem
rope	restis	resgtis	fem
rope	retinaculum	sognos	mas
rotten	cariēs	k∂rjēs	fem
rough	rudis	bhorcos	adI
rough	raucus	brenghos	adI
rough	rudis	d∂mpus	adI
row	rēmō	rējō	intr
rowan tree	sorbus	sorbhos	fem
rub	mulceō	melkō	tr
rub	teirō	terjō	tr
rubber	glūtinum	gloidos	mas
rubbish	immunditia	ceudhos	neu
rubbish	sordēs	swordis	fem
rudder	tēmō	oisjā	fem
rude	rudis	rudlós	adI
ruin	ruina	réwesnā	fem
ruin	ruinō	rikjō	tr
rule	imperō	w∂ldhējō	tr
ruler (in topography)	uirga	stolbos	mas
rūmen	rūmen	reusm∂n	neu
ruminate	rūminō	reusmnājō	intr
rummage	rūspor,	ruspjomoi
rumor (to produce)	rūmorem faciō	reumi
run	currō	bhecō	intr
run	currō	dhewō
run	currō	dremō (dídrāmi)	intr
run	currō	k∂rsō	tr
run	currō	retō	intr
run around	circumcurrō	dhreghō	intr
run away	ēcurrō	teqō	intr
rush	agitātiō	sretus	mas
rust	rōbīgō	roudhstos	mas
rye	sēcale cereāle	w∂rughis	mas
ryegrass	lolium	airā	fem
sack	saccus	coinos	mas
sacrifice	sacrificium	sákrodhokjom	neu
sad	maestus	creughos	adI
sad	tristis	gorgós	adI
sad	tristis	treistis	adI
sadness	tristitia	gorgnóm	neu
sailor	nauta	nawāgós	epic
saint	sanctus	kadros	adII
salary	sālārium	misdhom	neu
saliva	salīua	saleiwā	fem
salt	sāl	sāli	neu
salt	sallō	saldō	cau
sanctuary	sanctuārium	némētom	neu
sand	sabulum	samdhos	mas
sand/gravel	saburra	pēnsús	mas
sandal	sandalia	pedlom	neu
saucer	patera	p∂ter	fem
say	dīcō	seqō	tr
scabies	scabiēs	skabhjēs	fem
scald-crow	corūs	bhodhwos	mas
scale	squāma	bhrounóm	neu
scandal	scandalum	bhloskos	mas
scant	insignificans	m∂nwos	adI
scanty	exiguus	sneitos	adI
scar	cicatrix	kíkātrēiks	fem
scar	cicātrix	krenktis	fem
scatter	dispergor	skedō	intr
scene	pulpitus	polpos	mas
scold	obiurgō	lājō	tr
scorch	accendō	dáwnumi	tr
scrape	abrādō	gneidō	tr
scrape off	abrādō	greumō	tr
scrape out	abrādō	reubō	intr
scratch	charaxō	g∂rbhō	tr
scratch	scabō	gredō	tr
scratch	ērōdō	meukō	tr
scratch	scabō	skabhō	tr
scrath out	desculpō	meilō	tr
scream	clamō	waplājō	den
scythe	falx	dhēlgs	fem
sea	mare	mari	neu
sea	mare	tríj∂tos	mas
seabream	sparus aurata	atis	fem
seal	phoca	swelāks	mas
seam	sūtūra	sewm∂n	neu
season	tempus	jōrom	neu
seat	sella	sedlā	fem
seat	solium	sodjom	neu
second	secundus	dwóteros	adII
second	secundus	éteros	adII
second	secundus	ónteros	adII
secret	secrētum	rounā	fem
secrete	abdō	músnāmi	tr
secretion	secrētiō	seim∂n	neu
sect	secta	wereinā	fem
sedge	ulua	olwā	fem
sedge	spartum	sesqos	fem
see	uideō	d∂rkō	tr
see	uideō	oqō	tr
see	uideō	welō	tr
see	uideō	widējō	tr
seed	sēmen	sēm∂n	neu
seek	sāgiō	sāgijō	tr
seen	uisus	d∂rktis	fem
seesaw	oscillō	sweigō	prog
seeside	litus	leitos	neu
seize	captō	ghreibhō	tr
self	sui	sewe	igenes
sell	uēnum	wesnom	neu
send	mittō	smeitō	tr
send	mittō	sontējō	cau
send away	amandō	īljō	tr
separate	sē	wī	ind
separate	sēparō	derō	tr
serpent	natrix	natrēiks	fem
servant	serūs	ambhíqolos	mas
serve	fungor	bhúncomoi	intr
service	seruitium	upóstānom	neu
set	instaurō	staurējō	tr
set out	orior	∂ríjomoi	inc
settle	sēdō	sēdājō	cau
seven	septem	sept∂m	ind
seventh	septimus	sépt∂mos	adII
sew	suō	sewō	tr
sewer's awl	sūbula	sūdhlā	fem
shackle	uinciō	winkijō	tr
shadow	umbra	skotos	mas
shake	agitor	kreitsō	intr
shake	agitō	krotjājō	tr
shake	quatiō	q∂tjō	tr
shaker	mixtarium	m∂nkstrom	neu
shall	debeō	skelō	tr
shameful	pudendus	kaunós	adI
sharing	socius	sokjos	mas
sharp	acer	akris	adI
sharp	acūtus	gigrós	adI
sharp	picans	pikrós	adI
sharpen	exacuō	(kí)kēmi	tr
shatter	disrumpō	bhresjō	tr
shave	abrādō	ksnowājō	tr
shave	rādō	rādō	rac
shave	tondeō	tondējō	tr
sheath	uagīna	wageinā	fem
sheep	ouis	owis	fem
shelf	pluteus	skolpos	mas
shell	concha	konkhā	fem
shepherd	pāstor	pōimōn	mas
sherd	scrūpus	skroupos	mas
shield	tegō	rebhō	tr
shield	scūtum	skoitom	neu
shift	permutātiō	mejtis	fem
shimmer	fulgeō	bh∂lgējō	den
shin-bone	tībia	teibhjā	fem
shine	splendeō	erqō	intr
shine	luceō	bhrēgō	intr
shine	splendeō	dhelō	intr
shine	luceō	lukējō	den
shine	niteō	nitējō	den
shine	luceō	skejō	den
ship	nāuis	nāws	fem
ship	nāuis	plowós	mas
shirt	camisia	k∂rdsus	fem
shit	merda	coucis	fem
shit	excrēmentum	dherghs	fem
shit	merda	skerdā	fem
shit	merda	smerdā	fem
shit	stercus	sterkos	neu
shit	stercus	sterkos	neu
shiver	tremō	tresō
shoe	calceus	kerpjos	mas
shoot	disparō	selgō	tr
shoot	ēmittō	skeudō	tr
shore	ripa	peros	mas
short	breuis	m∂rghús	mas
shoulder	umerus	omsos	mas
shoulder-blades	scapulae	pletjā	fem
show	monstrō	deikō	tr
shrew	sorēx	sworēx
shriek	crociō	krokijō	intr
shuttle	agitō	kristājō	cau
sibling	fraterculans	s∂móp∂tōr	epi
sickle	falcicula	s∂rpā	fem
side	latus	splighstós	mas
side	latus	stlātos	mas
sieve	crībrum	kreidhrom	neu
sieve	cōlum	sējdhlom	neu
sieve	crinō	krinō	tr
sieve	cōlō	sējō	tr
silent	silens	tausos	adI
silent (to be)	sileō	silējō	intr
silent (to be)	taceō	t∂kējō	inc
silently	silenter	tausnim	ind
silver	argentum	árg∂ntom	neu
similar	similis	s∂mlis	adI
simple	merus	meros	adI
sincere	sincērus	∂ndwojos	adI
sing	canō	kanō	intr
sing	canō	senchō	intr
single	ūnicus	óinoikos	adII
sink	mergō	mergō	cau
sink	mergō	senqō	inc
sip	lambō	l∂mbō	tr
sip	sorbeō	sorbhējō	tr
sir		arjos
sir	dominus	audhos	mas
sister	soror	swesōr	fem
sister-in-law	glōs	glōs	fem
sister's son	sobrīnus	swesreinos	mas
sit	sedeō	sedējō	den
sit down	sīdō	sisdō	intr
site	situs	loghjom	neu
six	sex	seks / sweks	ind
sixth	sextus	sekstos	adII
skeletton	larua	skroutos	mas
skillful	habilis	dhabhros	mas
skin	cutis	kutis	mas
skin	pellis	pelnis	fem
skirt	falda	baitā	fem
slack	ēneruis	mlīnós	adI
slanting	obliquus	loksós	adI
slate	ardesia	lēwanks	fem
slave	seruos	dōsos	mas
sleep	somnus	swopnos	mas
sleep	dormiō	sesmi
sleep	dormiō	swepō	dur
sleeper	traversa	swelom	neu
slender	gracilis	k∂rklos	adI
slender	macer	makrós	adI
slip	labor	slábomoi	intr
slip	prolabor	sleibō
slip	prolabor	sleubō	inc
slip in	irrēpō	sméughnumi	tr
sloe	prūnus spinōsa	dherghnos	fem
slope	clinō	klóināmi	cau
slow	lentus	m∂lsos	mas
slow	tardus	tárudos	adI
small	parūs	alpos	adI
small	exigūs	gherús
small	paruus	paulos	adI
small pillar	columella	skolmā	fem
smaller	minor	meiwijós	adI
smell	oleō	bhr∂grājō	den
smell	olō	odējō	tr
smell	olfaciō	sísghrāmi	tr
smell good	fragrō	swekō	intr
smile	arrideō	smejō	intr
smog	turbulentia	sneudhs	fem
smoke	fūmus	dhoumos	mas
smoke	fūmus	smoughos	mas
smoke	fūmō	smeughō	intr
smooth	glaber	rastós	adI
smooth	explanō	sleigō
snail	cochlea	sleimāks	mas
snake	anguis	enchis	fem
snake	coluber	kélodhros	mas
snake	serpens	snoghā
snappy	transpuntorius	swerwos	adI
snare	laqueus	merghā	fem
snatch	rapiō	r∂pjō	tr
sneeze	sternuō	stérnumi	intr
snore	sternuō	srenkō	intr
snore	stertō	stertō	intr
snow	nix	sneighs	fem
snow	ninguit	sníncheti	den
so	ita	ita	ind
so	etenim	mān	ind
so	num	nom	ind
so many	tot	tot(j)s	adII
so much	tantus	tw∂ntos	pron
sob	hippitō	gheipō	intr
soft	mollis	m∂ldus	adI
soften	molliō	m∂lduwijō	tr
softened	ēmollītus	m∂ldsnos	adI
soil	solum	bhudhm∂n	neu
soldier	milēs	neros	mas
solid	solidus	dhobos	adI
solid	solidus	māterós	mas
solidify	solidificō	greutō	intr
someone	quisquis	neqos	pron
someone	ecquis	edqis, edqid	pron
son	filius	sūnus	mas
song	carmen	kanm∂n	neu
son-in-law	gener	gemros	mas
soon	mox	moksi	ind
soot	fūligo	dhoulis
soot	fuligō	sotos	mas
sorrow	maestitia	croughnos	adI
soul	animus	etm∂n	neu
sound	sonitus	dhwonos	mas
sound	clangō	kl∂ngō	intr
sound	sonō	swénāmi	intr
soup	ius	supā	fem
sour	amārus	amrós	adI
sour	acerbus	sauros	adI
sow	porca	trogjā	fem
sow	serō	segō	tr
sow	serō	sisō	tr
sowing	segēs	segēts	fem
space	spatium	ghewos	es
spade	pāla	laghā	fem
sparrow	parra	parsā	fem
sparrow	parra	sparwos	mas
speak	for	bhāmoi	intr
speak	loquor	tlóqomoi	intr
speak	loquor	wíweqmi	tr
spear	gaesum	ghaisom	neu
spear	hasta	lostos	mas
spearshaft	hasta	ghastā	fem
speckled	uarius	bh∂rktos	adI
speckled	uarius	m∂rktos	adI
speech	contiō	∂gtis	fem
speechless	mutus	muttis	adI
spelt	ador	ados	neu
spelt	alica	alēiks
spend	impendō	neudō	tr
spend the night	pernoctō	awō	dur
spill	effundō	seikō	tr
spill	effundō	sujō	tr
spin	neō	snēmi	tr
spit	spuō	spewō	intr
splash	respergō	persō	intr
spleen	lien	spelghā	fem
splendid	splendidus	ghlēiwos	adI
split	fragmentum	d∂rnos	mas
split	abiungō	delō	tr
split	scindō	sk∂ljō	tr
split	scindō	skerjō	tr
split	scindō	skindō	tr
split	secō	spleidō	tr
spoil	ruinō	deusō	tr
spoon	ligula	leiglā	fem
spot	macula	kālis	fem
spray	ros	ros	mas
spread	sternō	st∂rnō	tr
spread	mānō	mānājō	intr
spring	fons	lendhā	fem
spring	uēr	wēs∂r	neu
spring	saliō	s∂líjomoi	inc
spring	scatō	skatō	inc
spring	exsultō	skerō	intr
sprout	germinō	geimō	intr
sprout	uireō	wisējō	den
spurn	contemnō	tembhō	tr
square	quadrum	q∂ddrom	neu
squeak	pipiō	pipjājō	intr
squeeze	exprimō	wēskō	tr
stab	baculum	pinjos	neu
stab	talea	tálejā	fem
stable	stābilis	stārós	adI
stain	maculō	dherkō	cau
stain	macula	smitlā	fem
stain	maculō	sméenumi	inc
stalk	calamus	kól∂mos	mas
stalk	tibia	tibhjā	neu
stall	stābulum	stādhlom	neu
stamp on	conculcō	stembhō	tr
stand	stō	(sí)stāmi	intr
standing post	statiō	st∂tis	fem
star	stella	sterlā	fem
star	stella	steros	mas
star	sīdus	sweidos	neu
stare	intueor	stelpō	intr
start	functionem incipiō	dherbhō	inc
stay	maneō	wesō	den
steady	firmus	dh∂rmos	adI
steal	clepō	klepō	tr
steal	fūror	tājō	tr
steam	uapor	bholos	mas
steam up	uaporō	dhemō	intr
steep	ardūs	∂rdhwos	adI
steep	clīūs	kloiwos	adI
step	gradus	cām∂n	neu
step	uadō	ghenghō	intr
step	gredior	ghr∂djomói	dur
sterile	sterilis	stérolis	adI
stick	pilum	ghaisom	neu
stick	uirga	spōnos	mas
stick	stīpēs	steipēts	fem
stick	pālus	stupos	mas
stick	pālus	sworos	mas
stick	haereō	ghaisējō	den
stick	adhaerō	glínāmi	intr
stick	adhaerō	koljō	tr
stick	haereō	limpō	den
stick	instigō	stigājō	tr
sticky	glutinoosus	gloijós	adI
still	dum	dom	ind
stink	foeteō	smerdō	intr
stir up	torqueō	mendhō	tr
stock	dēpositō	kreumi	tr
stone	lapis	akmōn	mas
stone	lapis	l∂pods	mas
stone	saxum	s∂ksom	neu
stool	scamnus	skabhnom	neu
stop	dētineō	stāwō	tr
stop	strigō	strigājō	intr
stop up	obtuurō	teurō	tr
stork	ciconia	kíkōnjā	fem
storm	imber	∂mbhros	mas
storm	procella	twoimos	mas
story	historia	kleutrom	neu
strain	adnītor	kemō	intr
strainer	colum	rēti	neu
strap	infula	telsm∂n	neu
strap	lōrum	w∂lōrom
straw	palea	pálejā	fem
stream	flūmen	bhleugsm∂n	neu
stream	amnis	bhoglā	fem
stream	cursus	sroumos
street	uia	stoighos	mas
strenght	uis	belom	neu
strength	uis	weis	neu
strengthen	corroborō	dherghō	tr
stretched	tentus	t∂ntos	adI
strew	spargō	spargō	tr
strick	fūnis	dhōunis	mas
strike	tundō	bhínāmi	tr
strike	mulceō	bhreukō	tr
strike	percellō	keldō	tr
strike	plangō	pl∂ngō	tr
strike	tundō	tundō	tr
strike	caedō	wedhskō	tr
string	corda	strengom
string	fūnis	tentrom	neu
stroll	ambulō	aljomoi	intr
strom	fluxus	srewtis	fem
strong	robustus	bélowents	neu
strong	robustus	melos	adI
strong	robustus	nertos	adI
study	studium	stoudjom	neu
stuff	farcio	bh∂rkjō	tr
stumble	titubō	stemō	intr
stupid	stultus	mlākós	adI
stupid	mōrus	mōros	adI
stutter	balbutiō	lepō	intr
succeed	eueniō benē	bheughō	perf
success	euentus	kobom	neu
such	tālis	tālis	adII
suck	sūgō	seugō	tr
suck	sūgō	dheimi	tr
suck	sūgō	mendō	tr
sudden	repentinus	abhnos	adI
suffer	patior	p∂tjomói	tr
suitor	procus	prokós	mas
sulphur	sulpur	swelplos	neu
summer	aestus	ghrensmos	mas
summer	aestas	samos	mas
summit	cacumen	bhroigos	mas
summit	culmen	kolm∂n	neu
sun	sōl	swel(jos)
superior	superior	(s)úperos	adI
supplementary	complementārius	wíteros	adI
support	destina	leghtrom	mas
support	fulciō	bh∂lkjō	tr
support	sustineō	steutō	tr
surname	cognōmen	kómnōm∂n	neu
swamp	palus	palwóds	mas
swan	olor	elōr	mas
sway	oscillō	kēwējō	intr
sweat	sūdō	swoidājō	intr
sweet	dulcis	d∂lkus	adI
swell	tumefaciō	bhreusō	cau
swell	tumescō	pankō	intr
swell	salum	salom	neu
swell	tumefaciō	swelājō	tr
swell	turgeō	turgējō	den
swelling	tumōr	cotlós	mas
swelling	turgentia	keulom	neu
swelling	pannus	panknos
swelling	papula	paplā	fem
swelling	turgentia	pounā	fem
swift	rapidus	ōkús	adI
swim	nō	snāmi	intr
swindle	dēcrēscō	swendhō	prog
sword	ensis	∂nsis	mas
sword	gladius	kladjos	mas
syrup	dēfrutum	bhrwtom
table	tabula	speltā
tablet	tabella	klāros	mas
tablet	līra	loisā	fem
tail	cauda	doklom	mas
tail	caudula	dumbos	mas
tail	cauda	ersā	fem
tail	cauda	ersábhaljom	neu
tail	cauda	pukos	mas
take	emō	emō	tr
take	emō	labhō	tr
take care	cūrō	swerghō	tr
take possession	potior	áinumoi	tr
talk	garriō	gálgaljō	intr
talk	garriō	garsijō	intr
tame	cicur	kékuros	adI
tame	domō	dómāmi	tr
taste	gustus	geustis	fem
taste	gustō	gusnō	tr
team	squadra	lāwós	mas
tear	lacrima	dakrus	fem
tear	lacerō	l∂kesājō	cau
tear	rōdō	rōdō	tr
tear off	uellō	weldō	tr
tearing	lacerātiō	l∂kós	mas
teat	tetta	tettā	fem
technique	ars	teksnā	fem
teeth	dentes	gombhos	mas
tell	narrō	jekō	tr
tell	narrō	wedō	tr
tell off	obiurgātiō	lm∂ntom	neu
temple	templum	temlom	neu
temple	tempus	tenjom	neu
ten	decem	dek∂m	ind
tendon	tendō	kenklom
tendril	cincinnus	olgjā	fem
tension (engine)	tormentum	tórkm∂ntom	neu
termite	tarmes	t∂rmos	mas
terrible	terrens	ghouros	adI
terror	terror	tersós	mas
that	ut	ei	ind
that	ille illa illud	elne elnā elnod
that one	iste	oisos	adII
that, the one that	is quis	jos (je), jā, jod	rel
the other one	alter	álteros	adII
then	deinde	∂ndha	ind
then	tum	tom	ind
then	tunc	tom-ke	ind
there	ibī	idhei	ind
therefore	ergō	ar	ind
therefore	propterea	tori	ind
thick	densus	d∂nsus	adI
thigh	poples	morjods	mas
thigh	perna	touknā	fem
thin	flaccus	bhlakkos	adI
thin	tenuis	speimis	adI
thin	tenuis	t∂nus	adI
thing	rēs	weqtis	fem
think	cōgitō	s∂ntējō
thinnen	tenuefaciō	kakō	cau
third	tertius	tritjos	adII
thirst	sitis	t∂rstis	fem
this	hic haec hoc	ghei-ke ghāi-ke ghod-ke
this	is, ea, id	is, id	pron
this	hic hae hoc	ke kā kod (eke ekā ekod)
this	iste ista istud	se/sos sā/sī tod
thorn	spīna	sqijā	fem
thorn	spīna	t∂rnā	fem
thousand	mille	smeighsli	neu
thrash	studeō	studējō	den
thread	quālus	koreibs	mas
threaten	minor	tercō	tr
threatening	minax	torcós	adI
three	trēs	trejes trija trísores	adII
three in a go	trīnī	trisnôs
three times	ter	trĩs	ind
throat	guttur	bh∂rugs	mas
throat	guttur	gut∂r	mas
through	trāns	trāntis	ind
throw	iaceō	j∂kējō	den
throw	iaciō	supājō	tr
throw away	abiciō	celō	tr
thrush	turdus	t∂rsdos	mas
thumb	pollēx	polnēks	mas
thunder	tonitrus	tontrom	neu
thunder	tonitrum	torsm∂n	neu
thunderbolt	fulmen	meldhjā
thurify	turificō	kodējō	tr
thus	sīc	seike	ind
tick	rihipicephalus	deghā	fem
tick	ricinus	rekā
tile	tegula	teglā	fem
time	tempus	daitis	fem
time	uix	q∂rtus	mas
time	tempus	tempos	neu
time	tempus	wetos	neu
time before dawn	antelucānum	ánksitjom	neu
tire	fatigō	l∂nchō	cau
tired	lassus	c∂lēnós	adI
to	ad	ana	ind
to another place	aliō	áljote	ind
today	hodie	edjēw	ind
toga	toga	togā	fem
together	cunctim	s∂m	ind
tomb	sepulcrum	sépeltrom	neu
tomorrow	cras	krasi	ind
tongue	lingua	denchā	fem
tongue-tied	balbus	balbos	adI
tool	instrumentum	kaplos	mas
tooth	dens	dentis	mas
top	turbēn	kōnos	mas
torch	fax	chēks	fem
torch	taeda	dáwētā	fem
torment	cruciō	cedhō	tr
torpid (to be)	torpeō	t∂rpējō	den
tortoise	testudō	ghelus	fem
torture	tormentō	rigjō	tr
totality	integritās	solwotāts	fem
touch	commoueō	krēwō	tr
touch	tangō	palpājō	tr
touch	tangō	t∂ngō	tr
tough	rudis	raukos	adI
towards	uersus	anta	ind
towards	uersus	poti	ind
towards there	eō	totrēd	ind
towards this side	citrō	kitrōd
towel	mantellum	tergslom	neu
tower	turris	tursis	fem
tower	ēmineō	m∂níjomoi	omc
town	oppidum	dounom	neu
track	indāgō	pentō	tr
traitor	próditor	pród∂tṓr	adII
trap	laciō	l∂kjō
trap	pedica	segnom	neu
trap	capiō	ségnumi	tr
travel	iter facere	kelujō	intr
tread	calcō	sp∂rāmi
treat	consuēscō	drewō	tr
tremble	tremō	tremō	dur
trestle	uara	stoghos	mas
trouble	cūra	kādos	neu
trouble	inquietō	oghlējō	cau
trough	potārium	aldhōn	mas
trousers	pantalōnus	skousā	fem
trout	tructa	perknā	fem
true	uērus	wēros	adI
trunk	truncus	st∂mnos	mas
trunk	stirps	stērps	mas
trust	fīdō	bheidhō	tr
try	cōnōr	kōnjomoi	inc
tube	conductus	aulos	fem
tube	conductus	rebhrus	mas
tuff of hair	caesariēs	w∂ltis	fem
tunic	tunica	ruktus	mas
tunnel	cuniculus	bolkos	mas
turban	tiara	wosis	mas
turfgrass	agrostis	smelgā	fem
turkey	pavō	téturos	mas
turmoil	tumultus	túmolos	mas
turn	gyrō	derbhō	intr
turn	reuertor	kwerpō	inc
turn	gyrescō	swerbhō	inc
turn	torqueō	torqējō	cau
turn	uertō	w∂rtō	tr
turn	uoluō	welwō	tr
turn around	circumeō	witājō	intr
turned aside	perperām	pérper∂nks	ind
turnip	rāpum	rāpom	neu
twenty	uigintī	dwidk∂mtói	adII
twin	geminus	jemós	neu
twisted	tortus	lordós	adI
two	duo	dwou, dwāu, dwou	adII
two each	bīnī	dwīsnōs	lois
two times	bis	dwīs	lois
udder	ūber	ūdh∂r	neu
udder	ūber	ūdhros	adI
ugly	foedus	bhoidhos	adI
ugly	foedus	bhoidos	neu
ugly	turpis	t∂rrpis	adI
un-	in-	∂n	ind
unbind	luō	luwō (lewō)	tr
uncle	avunculus	áwontlos	mas
uncle	patruus	p∂trujós	mas
under	sub	sup	ind
under	sub	upo	ind
underly	inferior	∂ndherós	adI
understand	intellegō	peumi	tr
unexpected	necopiinus	nekopīnós	mas
unfair	iniustus	∂njoustos	adI
union	coniunctiō	kómjougos	mas
unjustice	iuiuria	∂njousjom	neu
unknown	ignōtus	∂ngnōtós	adI
unmade	infectus	∂ndhētós	adII
unmuddy	illimis	∂nsloimis	adII
until	tenus	teni	ind
uppest	summus	(s)upmos	sup
use	ūsus	bhreugtis	fem
uter	úterus	úderos	mas
valley	uallis	klopnis	fem
value	ualor	wertos	mas
vanish	abeō	ghdhínāmi	inc
vegetable	olus	chelwos	neu
vegetation	uiridia	dhalnā	fem
veil	rīca	w∂reikā	fem
veil	obumbrō	gheughō	tr
vein	uēna	weisnā	fem
venerate	ueneror	áidomoi	tr
very	per-	abhro-	praefix
vessel	fiscus	bhidhós	mas
vessel	collectāculum	kaukos	mas
veteran	ueterānus	gerwós	mas
vibrate	uibrō	wibrājō	cau
victim	uictima	wéiktomā	fem
victory	uictoria	seghos	mas
vigor	alacer	ghoilos	adI
vigor	uigor	w∂rgā	fem
vigorous	uiridis	súnoros	mas
village	uīcus	woikos	mas
vine	uītis	weitis	fem
vine-leaf	pampinus	pámponos	mas
violent	uiolentus	twoisós	adI
violet	liueus	sleiwos	adI
virginal	uirginālis	poughos	adI
virtue	decus	dekos	neu
vis-à-vis	aduersum	seqi	ind
viscose	conglūtīnōsus	cobhōn	adI
vision	conspectus	d∂rktis	fem
visitor	uisitātor	setis	epic
vivid	uiuidus	coikos	adI
vivid	uiuidus	ētros	adI
voice	uox	woqs	fem
vomit	uomō	wémāmi	tr
vow	uoueō	wochējō	tr
vulture	ūltur	bhāsos	mas
vulture	uultur	c∂lturós	mas
wade	sūra	sworā	fem
wake up	expergiscōr	bheudhō	inc
wake up	expergiscor	gerjō	intr
walk	ambulō	steighō	intr
walk	uādō	wadhō	intr
walk silently	uadō	selkō	intr
wall	mūrus	mākesjā
wall	uallum	walnom	neu
wall	moenia	dhoighs	mas
walls	moenia	moinja	neu
walnut	nux	knuwā	fem
wander	errō	ersājō	den
want	delectō	torpējō	cau
war	bellum	dsā	fem
warm	formus	chormos	adI
warm	calefaciō	cherō	tr
warm (bo be)	tepeō	tepējō	den
warmth	tepor	topnos	mas
warn	moneō	monējō	cau
warp	inflectō	keukō	dur
warrior	milēs	meilēts	mas
wart	uerrūca	wersm∂n	neu
wash	purgō	klewō	tr
wash	lauō	lowō	tr
wash	lauō	neicō	tr
wasp	uespa	wopsā	fem
watcher	uigil	bhulkos	mas
water	aqua	aqā	fem
water	aqua	wed∂r	neu
water	aqua	wodā	fem
water	aqua	wopjā	fem
water	rigō	préusnumi	tr
watercress	berrum	cérurom	neu
wave	unda	tusnā	fem
wave	unda	w∂ndā	fem
way	iter	it∂r	neu
way	uia	pontis	mas
way	uia	tropos	mas
way	uia	weghjā	fem
we	nōs	wejes / weje	pron
weak	dēbilis	klamrós	adI
weak	lēnis	lēnis
weaken	dēbilitō	mlājō	cau
weakness	dēbilitas	bhelu	neu
wealth	substantia	opnā	fem
weapon	arma	wedh∂r	neu
wear	gerō	gesō	tr
weasel	mustela	kérberos	mas
weather	tempus	wedhrom	neu
weave	texō	krekō
weave	texō	webhō	tr
weave	texō	wegō	tr
webbing	ricinium	w∂réikonjom	neu
wedge	cuneus	kúnejos	mas
wedge	cuneus	t∂rmēts	fem
weed	runcō	runkō	tr
weed	sarriō	s∂rijō
weep	fleō	bhlēmi	intr
weft	trāma	traghsmā	fem
weigh	pendō	kenkō	inc
weight	pondus	pondos	neu
well	puteus	bhrew∂r	neu
well	benē	sū	lois
went	iī	ludhóm	intr
went	iī	sodóm	intr
west	occidens	éperom	neu
wet	madidus	molqos	adI
wet	madidus	wosmós	adI
wet	rigō	r∂gājō	tr
wet (to be)	umeō	uchējō	den
what	qui quae quod	qis qid	int
wheat	far	bhar	neu
wheat	farīna	bharseinā	fem
wheat	frūmentum	bhreugsm∂n	neu
wheel	rota	dhroghós	fem
wheel	rota	rotā	fem
wheelrim	cantus	kantos	mas
whelp	catulus	kuwos	mas
whelp	cattulus	mondós	mas
when	quandō	q∂mdō	int
when	cum	qom	ind
when	cum	jom	rel
whenever	sī	sei	neu
where	unde	qomde	ind
where	ubī	qodhei	int
where	quō	qi	ind
where (rel)	ūbī	jodhei	rel
wherefore	quapropter	jori	rel
wherefrom	unde	qotrōd	ind
whether	ecquī, -quae, -quod	edqos, -qā, -qod	pron
whey	sērum lactis	misgā	fem
which	quā	qād	ind
which	uter	qóteros	dh°r
whine	hirriō	ghirrijō	intr
whip	lepeō	w∂lepējō	den
whip	flagellum	werbos	neu
whirl	gurgues	c∂rcots	mas
whirl	turbō	tworbhōn	fem
whirl	contorqueō	snerō	intr
whirlpool	uertex	dhwolsā	fem
whisper	susurrō	swerō	intr
whisper	susurrō	swrswrājō	intr
whistle	sībilō	sweighlājō	intr
whistle	siffilō	sweisdō
white	albus	albhos	adI
white	candidus	kweitos	mas
white-stained	candidē maculātus	bhlōros
whither	quō	qote	int
whither	quō	qotrēd	ind
who, which	quī quae quod	qos qā(i) qod	rel
whoever	quisque	qāqos	pron
whole	tōtus	solwos	adII
whore	merētrix	loutsā	fem
whore	scortum	skortom	neu
why ?	cūr	qori	ind
wicked	improbus	∂nprobhwos	adI
wide	latus	plākos	adI
wide	amplus	urús	adI
widely known	satis constans	wíklutom	adII
widow	uidua	wídhewā	fem
wife	uxor	s∂mloghós	fem
wife	uxor	uksōr	fem
wild	ferus	cheros	adI
wild	rudis	reudos	adI
will	uolō	welmi	tr
willlow	salīx	widhos	fem
willow	salix	salēiks	fem
win	uincō	winkō	tr
wind	uentus	wentos	mas
wind	contorqueō	gergō	cau
wind	torqueō	wondhējō	cau
window	fenestra	louksā	fem
wine	uīnum	woinos	mas
wine-cask	cupa	k∂lpros	mas
wing	āla	agslā	fem
wing	āla	peterós	mas
winnow	ventilō	neikō	tr
winter	hiems	ghjems	mas
wipe	abrādō	m∂ntrājō	tr
wipe	tergō	tergō	tr
wire	fīlum	chislom	neu
wire	fūnis	weiros	mas
wise	nāuus	gnōwos
witch	uenēfica	wikkā	fem
with	cum	k∂mti	dh°r
with	cum	kom	ind
withdraw	remoueō	anjō	tr
wither	uiēscō	wijēskō	inc
without	sine	∂neu	ind
withraw	cēdō	kesdō	intr
witness	testis	tristis	adII
wolf	lupus	w∂lqos	mas
wolf	lupus	wailós	mas
woman	mulier	cenā	fem
woman	mulier	morignā	fem
womb	uterus	colbhos	mas
wonder	admīror	sméiromoi	tr
wonderful	mīrus	smeiros	adI
wood	lignum	deru	neu
woodpecker	pīca	kikjā	fem
woodpecker	pīca	peikā	fem
woodpiece	lignum	skoidos	mas
woodworker	lignārius	tetkōn	mas
wool	lāna	w∂lnā	fem
word	uerbum	w∂rdhom	neu
work	labos	drātis	fem
work	laborō	drājō	intr
work	opus	opos	neu
work	laborō	w∂rgjō	intr
work	labos	wergom	neu
workman	operārius	drātṓr	mas
world	mundus	dhoubnom	neu
worm	lombrīcus	longhros	mas
worm	lombrīcus	ochis	mas
worm	uermis	q∂rmis	mas
worm	uermis	wormis	mas
worn	gestāmen	bhoros	mas
worry	turbō	mérnumi	tr
worse	dēterius	pedjós	adI II
worship	uēneror	aisō	tr
worthy	dignus	deknos	adI
wound	ulcus	elkos	neu
wound	feriō	chendō	cau
wound	uulnerō	swérnumi	tr
wrap	inuoluō	weipō	tr
wrap out	ēuoluō	werpō	tr
wrapping	tegmen	wélw∂men	neu
wrath	ira	eisā	fem
wring out	ēguttō	légnumi	tr
wrinkle	rūga	gorbos	mas
wrist	manicula	dornom	neu
write	scribō	skreibhō	tr
yarn	glomus	glomos	neu
yawn	hiātus	ghanos	neu
year	annus	atnos	mas
yell	clamō	klāmājō	intr
yellow	flāūs	bhlāwos	adI
yellow	glaesus	knakos	adI
yes	certō	jāi	ind
yesterday	herī	dhghesi	ind
yew	taxus	oiwos	fem
yoke	iugum	jugóm	neu
you	tū	tū	pron
you	uōs	juwes / juwe	pron
young	iuuenis	júw∂nkos	adII
young	iuuenis	júwenis	adII
young	iuuenis	juwōn	adI
young goat	haedus	ghaidos	mas
youngster	iuuenis	machos	mas
youth	iuuebtūs	machotis	fem
youth	iuuentus	júw∂ntā	fem

Appendix III. PIE Revival For a Common Europe

Carlos Quiles, Chair, Last year student of Law and Economics, University Carlos III of Madrid.

María Teresa Batalla, Vice-Chair, Doctorate Student, Library Science and Documentation.

Neil Vermeulen, International Director, DPhil in English, expert in modern linguistics, English professor.

Fatima Calvin, Executive Secretary, English Philologist, specialized in Old English and mediaeval languages, English professor.

Supporters:

v Theoretical Foundations:

Department of Classical Antiquity, University of Extremadura.

Antonio Muñoz, Vice-Dean of Administrative Affairs and Prof.Dr. in UEx, Faculty of Library Science, expert in Administration and e-Administration.

University of Extremadura, supporter of the project under the first competition of Entrepreneurial Innovation in the Imagination Society, 2006.

v Economic Foundations:

Luis Fernando de la Macorra, Prof.Dr. in Economics, University of Extremadura, expert in interregional economy, especialized in the concept of Eurocity Badajoz(Es)-Elvas(Pt).

Regional Government of Extremadura, supporter of the project under the first competition of Entrepreneurial Innovation in the Imagination Society, 2006.

v Practical Implementation:

Cabinet of Young Initiative, supporter of the project under the first competition of Entrepreneurial Innovation in the Imagination Society, 2006.

Academia Biblos, S.L., which supports our private research with continuated donations.

NOTE. The full project was published in Spanish in 2006, and corrected in 2007. This is a translated selection of the original Spanish version.

III.1. Modern Indo-European or the Revived PIE Language

The idea arose in Easter 2004. I was studying at the Public Library of Badajoz with Mayte and some friends, and I kept reading some books about the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula. The Lusitanians draw my attention, not only because they lived in our south-western Iberian lands some millennia before us, but also because their old inscriptions were easily understood for somebody with little knowledge of Latin, and still it was classified as a “Celtic-like Indo-European dialect” by the author. I took some more books about Proto-Indo-European history, culture and language, and made my first notes about how could it be to inflect nouns and conjugate verbs in such an old language… and it didn’t sound that strange.

Two years later, after months of (irregular) study and work, the enterprise I eventually decided to undertake is finished, the basis for a complete grammatical system is more or less done, and the websites are working. It doesn’t matter whether Indo-European revival succeeds or not, my personal objective is achieved; at least the farthest I’ve been able to carry it.

However, I can’t stop thinking about how to make good use of this work, how to benefit those who worked, work and will work on this project, as well as the European Union, turning this personal project into different not-for-profit businesses (job-maker corporations, so to speak), e.g. in the Badajoz-Elvas Eurocity, mainly for specialized workers, philologists, translators and interpreters, computer engineers, etc. I can only imagine two possible situations of success for the Indo-European language revival: either some regional, national or European public or private institutions support the project, and it is implemented and institutionalized in order; or, as it was originally planned, this turns to be an Open Source social movement, and consequently everyone tries to make a better project, with many different independent groups – institutions or individuals with limited resources –, which somehow manage to lead a disorderly revival.

I think that, if it eventually succeeds, and if Europe manages to profit from these first confusing moments to keep all possible niches of this future market of Modern Indo-European, the output could be a radical change in the situation of the European economy in relation with the United States and other English-speaking countries, and especially a change in the perception that Europeans have of their Community and its peoples.

If we had to compare this project with traditional investments, we should say that, while the investment of public institutions in agrarian and industrial projects – or the investing of time and efforts of an individual in public competitions to become a civil servant – is like a guaranteed fixed deposit; to bet on this project – as an individual or an institution – is like investing in tiny and risky securities of a local Asian Stock Exchange. In the first case, the benefit is certain and well-known, whilst the second is a lottery, in which the amount invested can be completely lost or doubled with – apparently – the same probability.

The only reason why people would invest in such a lottery is because it is not only a matter of chance. We at Dnghu have believed in it, and still believe, investing a lot of time and money. I hope you believe in it too.

Carlos Quiles

Co-founder of Dnghu

Real knowledge of English within the European Union. Differently as what happens in Israel or the United States, the “common” language studied in almost every school and high school within the EU, English, is not learned as well as the own language. Whatever the sociological, cultural, anthropological, political and/or psychological reasons behind such behaviour, it is clear that Latin or artificial languages as Esperanto couldn’t solve this situation, either. Modern Indo-European, on the other hand, is a new possibility which could change completely our concept of a united Europe.

III.2. European Union Inefficiencies

Simplified Cause and Effect Diagram of Present-Day European Union Problems’

Some of the problems derived from the lack of one national language for the EU can be seen in this cause and effect diagram. This inefficient situation, already pointed out long ago, hadn’t until recently any stable solution.

The revival of the Proto-Indo-European language makes it possible, with adequate linguistic policy and planning, to put an end to many of these problems and to open a new horizon for integration and collaboration between the citizens and regions of the European Union.

Since the very beginnings of the EEC, the three main languages (working languages), English, French and German, were used for every communication, while English was unofficially the lingua franca used by all in direct conversations and other immediate communication needs.

This model, the most logical and simple in the initial small European Community after WWII, has become obsolete, with the increase in the number of official languages and, at the same time, the growth of political demands for more presence in European institutions among defenders of national and regional or co-official languages.

It seems today that every hope of achieving a USA-like system – where English is the only official language for the Federation – is discarded: while in US history English has won in every Federal State – although there is also co-officiality in some of them, like Spanish in New Mexico or French in Louissiana –, in Europe the Union does not lay its foundations on some English-speaking colonies of immigrants. On the contrary, the only reason why English is spoken as the European Union lingua franca is the predominant position of the United States within the international community since the foundation of the ECSC until today.

In the beginnings of the EEC, English as a lingua franca was the best linguistic policy.

The choice of English as the only official language for a future EU Federation is discarded; countries like France or Germany – and possibly Spain, Italy or Poland –, among others, would not accept it, as it would mean to abandon legitimate lingusitic rights in favour of other States, without a sufficient justification in terms of population, political or economical relevance. The existence of a Nation with at least 25 official languages where none is over the others is a beautiful idea, and also an obvious utopia. At present, 23 languages – and four at least to come – are official, some semi-official (like Basque or Catalan), 3 of them working languages - i.e., officiously more important than the rest-, and one, English, serves (unofficially) for general communication. This does not seem the best of the possible solutions: it lacks the European spirit necessary for correct integration between the different nations in a common country, and is clearly inefficient.

To date, only some isolated proposals had claimed to be intermediate solutions, as the adoption of Latin, or the use of supposedly ‘neutral’ invented languages (as Esperanto, Ido, Interlingua, etc.). In both cases, the main supposed advantage consists in not being any of the present European Union languages and, because of that, not having theoretical cultural barriers for its acceptance. Latin has been Europe’s lingua franca for centuries – before being substituted by French in the 18^th century –, while Volapük and its following clones and remakes (as Esperanto and the like) were invented by individuals with an international vocation, aimed at (above all) being easy to learn. However, as both solutions are not living languages, and because they are obviously unable to become EU’s national language, the Europeans’ answer has been at best of indifference to such proposals, thus accepting the defficient linguistic statu quo.

Modern Hebrew and the Land of Israel

The language of Israel is Modern Hebrew: it is not their only language, as many old Israelis still speak better their old languages – like Judeo-Spanish or Yiddish (Judeo-German) – than modern Hebrew, and it is certainly not a very practical language from an international point of view. However, the Land of Israel needed a language, and even though they also had the possibility of choosing between different alternatives, as international languages (like French, English or Turkish), death languages (like Latin or its equivalentⁱ to Hebrews, Aramaic), or even artificial language systems (as Volapük or Esperanto), they chose the historical language of Israel, Hebrew, a language dead 2.500 years before – after the conquest of Jerusalem by the Babilonians under Nebuchadnezzar II –, and whose texts, mainly orally transmitted and very formal religious writings, are deemed 500 years older. Hebrew could only be reconstructed with limited exactitude, and at first opposition to the language was generalized, mainly because of religious concerns; but, in practice, it was a language that united tradition and ease of use and learning, as many jews learned (and still learn today) the sacred texts in old Hebrew, just as many European countries still have Latin and Greek as obligatory subjects in High School.

11^th century Targum. Mediaeval remains are the oldest writings of Old Hebrew.

Europe faces today a similar decision. We don’t have to defend more European integration; the current customs union is maybe all we can achieve in our Union of countries, just a supranational entity with some delegated legislatory powers. But if we want, as it seems, to achieve a Confederation-like State (like Switzerland) or even a European Federation (as the US or Germany), then the only linguistic non-utopic solution, which unites tradition and ease of use and learning, is Modern Indo-European or the revived Proto-Indo-European language, because it is the grandmother of the languages of almost all citizens of the EU. Modern Indo-European is free of regional meaning –that could hurt the national proud of the others –, and, at the same time, full of European common significance.

ⁱBefore the Jews were expelled from their homeland, they spoke Aramaic, which substituted Old Hebrew after the fall of Jerusalem.

III.3. More than just a Lingua Franca, Europe’s National Language

The game theory is a branch of applied mathematics that studies strategic situations where players choose different actions in an attempt to maximize their returns. It studies optimal strategies of foreseen and observed behaviour of individuals in such games; it studies, then, the choice of the optimal behaviour when costs and benefits of each option are not fixed, but depend on the choice of the other players.

The following table is based on “Special Eurobarometer 243” of the European Commission with the title “Europeans and their Languages”, published on February 2006 with research carried out on November and December 2005. The survey was published before the 2007 Enlargement of the European Union, when Bulgaria and Romania acceded. This is a poll, not a census. 28,694 citizens with a minimum age of 15 were asked in the then 25 member-states as well as in the then future member-states (Bulgaria, Romania) and the candidate countries (Croatia, Turkey) at the time of the survey. Only citizens, not immigrants, were asked.

The first table shows what proportion of citizens said that they could have a conversation in each language as their mother tongue and as a second language or foreign language (only the languages with at least 2% of the speakers are listed):

Language	Mother Tongue	Not Mother Tongue	Total Proportion
English	13%	38%	51%
German	18%	14%	32%
French	12%	14%	26%
Italian	13%	3%	16%
Spanish	9%	6%	15%
Polish	9%	1%	10%
Dutch	5%	1%	6%
Russian	1%	6%	7%
Swedish	2%	1%	3%
Greek	3%	0%	3%
Czech	2%	1%	3%
Portuguese	2%	0%	2%
Hungarian	2%	0%	2%
Slovak	1%	1%	2%
Catalan	1%	1%	2%

Languages spoken within the European Union (more than 2%). Data for EU25.

The European Union’s Linguistic Policy game is depicted here in extensive form, with a decision tree, where each vertex (or node) represents a point of choice for a player. The player is specified by a number listed by the vertex. The lines out of the vertex represent a possible action for that player. The payoffs are specified at the bottom of the tree.

In this simplified game there are 2 players. Player 1, who represents any linguistic community within the EU, moves first and choose between two options; one, (E) Egoistical, consists in favouring the own language, and the other (R), consists in Renouncing the own language in favor of any other option. Player 2, who represents other linguistic community within the EU, sees the move of player 1 and choose in turn E or R. For example, if player 1 chooses E and then player 2 chooses R, player 2 obtains 2 points and player 1 obtains 5 points; if he chooses E, both obtain 3 points each. The payoff of being able to speak the own language with better status than the other is then 5 -due to, say, national proud-, and the contrary -for the same reason- has a value of 2, while speaking both languages at the same level has a payoff of 3.

This – simplistically depicted – game is constantly played within the EU by the different linguistic communities: UK and Ireland for English, Germany and Austria mainly for German, France and Belgium for French,etc.

Present Situation of the linguistic policy in the EU, without Modern Indo-European.

The equilibrium obtained in this game is always the same, as every pair of players has in the Egoistic the best of their possible decisions. Player 1, which is the first to decide – let’s say he decides first because he represents an important linguistic community, like the English, or a majority, like the German – obtains 5 or 3 points if he behaves Egoistically, but 3 or 2 points if he Renounces his linguistic rights. The first option (underlined) is the best in any of the possible events. For the second player, the payoff of behaving Egoistically is 3 or 5, while Renouncing his rights would give him 2 or 3 points. Again, the Egoistical behaviour is the best.

It is obvious, however, that this output (3,3) is inefficient for the EU, which would benefit from the sacrifice of some linguistic communities to obtain a better situation, although none is prepared to give up. Hence the unstable equilibrium, where everybody has an interest in changing the final output, in negotiations where the EU looks for the optimal punctuation of the scheme (7 points), with less languages – in the real world the EU chooses unofficially English as lingua franca and French and German for some other working issues –, while every community has an incentive to behave Egoistically to be, in a hypothetical situation, the one to enjoy the maximum output of 5 points.

European Union linguistic policy after the introduction of Modern Indo-European

After the introduction of Modern Indo-European (a systematized Proto-Indo-European), the payoff of the option in which both players renounce their linguistic rights change, but the solution of the game (at least in theory), paradoxically, not.

The payoff of behaving Egoistically for both players is 3 or 5 points, while that of Renouncing is 2 or 5. Then, even after the introduction of Europaio as the alternative, the output of the game will still be the Egoistic one.

The global situation is completely different, though, as the equilibrium sought by the European Union is that which will give the maximum global payoff, 10; once obtained this equilibrium, no player will have incentives to change his decision, because his situation will not be better off. The game has, then, only one Nash Equilibrium, Pareto optimal, and the players (which are, in general, rational) will choose the strategies that agree with it.

The European Parliament. Can you imagine how European Parliamentary sessions are driven and followed by its multilingual members without a common national language? How can we expect a more democratic Europe without a common language for the Legislative, for the Executive, for Justice, for the Administration?

III.4. DNGHU, The Indo-European Language Association

Language planning refers to the deliberate efforts to influence the behaviour of others with respect to the acquisition, structure, or functional allocation of language. Typically it will involve the development of goals, objectives and strategies to change the way language is used. At a governmental level, language planning takes the form of language policy. Many nations have language regulatory bodies which are specifically charged with formulating and implementing language planning policies.

Language planning can be divided into three sub-dimensions:

Corpus planning refers to intervention in the forms of a language. This may be achieved by creating new words or expressions, modifying old ones, or selecting among alternative forms. Corpus planning aims to develop the resources of a language so that it becomes an appropriate medium of communication for modern topics and forms of discourse, equipped with the terminology needed for use in administration, education, etc. Corpus planning is often related to the standardization of a language, involving the preparation of a normative orthography, grammar, and dictionary for the guidance of writers and speakers in a speech community. Efforts at linguistic purism and the exclusion of foreign words also belong to corpus planning, and for a previously unwritten language, the first step in corpus planning is the development of a writing system.

Status planning refers to deliberate efforts to allocate the functions of languages and literacies within a speech community. It involves status choices, making a particular language or variety an ‘official language’, ‘national language’, etc. Often it will involve elevating a language or dialect into a prestige variety, which may be at the expense of competing dialects. Status planning is part and parcel of creating a new writing system since a writing system can only be developed after a suitable dialect is chosen as the standard.

Acquisition planning concerns the teaching and learning of languages, whether national languages or second and foreign languages. It involves efforts to influence the number of users and the distribution of languages and literacies, achieved by creating opportunities or incentives to learn them. Such efforts may be based on policies of assimilation or pluralism. Acquisition planning is directly related to language spread. While acquisition planning is normally the province of national, regional, or local governments, bodies such as the British Council, Alliance française, Instituto Cervantes and Goethe-Institut are also very active internationally promoting education in their respective languages.

The main objective of the Dnghu Association is exactly to make use of its pioneering role in reviving the Indo-European language to become the reference institution for the development of Modern Indo-European or the revived Proto-Indo-European language, a set of grammatical rules necessary for proper communication in present-day Europe. This role includes:

A. Administering a group of experts in Indo-European linguistics, who should develop thoroughly the Corpus linguistics of Modern Indo-European, through a Consortium of universities and other renowned linguistic institutions, establishing guidelines and recommendations to be accepted by all. The Consortium should be located in some clearly Europeanist city, like Brussels, Strasbourg, Bologna, or otherwise where the first important university of Central Europe joins.

Knowledge of French in the European Union. Along with the knowledge of German, Spanish or Russian, all those who know at least English and French have it easier to learn the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European. If they learn Latin and Greek, they will have it still easier.

B. Also, as many resources as possible should be used to promote the birth of a social movement for revival: we called those projects “Europaio” – which is the easily recognizable name of the language system –, comprising Open Source software and other works and Wiki websites’ content under Copyleft licenses, to attract everyone to participate and join; and also – being consistent with real Copyleft premises – allowing everyone to develop their own projects in case they don’t like ours. This way, Indo-European revival is the only secured beneficiary of the community efforts (whether united or dispersed), and Indo-European has a bigger chance to become the future official language of the EU.

C. Lastly, incorporating a legal framework, the Indo-European Language Association, to manage and administer the aforementioned projects of language planning, dividing its activities into different zones, and trying to:

1. Publish grammars, referente guides, dictionaries, specialized reviews in Indo-European linguistics, collaborating with experts in Proto-Indo-European, and also arranging conferences and workgroups. Dnghu would be, then, a reference for works in or about the Indo-European language.

2. Publish learning methods, whether official or not, either free or proprietary, like manuals for school, high school or university students; CD-ROMs and other multimedia learning tools; distance courses through e-learning; translation software for individuals and professionals, etc.

3. Translate literary works, promote literary or general artistic creations, work in subtitles and dubbing of films, and all kinds of promotional activities addressed to the public, with a market of more than 400 million Europeans.

4. Organize language courses for individuals and companies, taught in every Dnghu center, with some special locations for intensive and summer courses under a only-Indo-European-spoken-here rule.

5. Broadcasting of news, television and radio programs in Indo-European, making use of the Internet and new multimedia technologies, trying to become a reference source for independent news, the way the BBC and the Deutsche-Welle are in their languages.

6. Receive public subsidies from the EU and the regions that host the Indo-European revival projects. Promote donations of individuals as a logical means to fund new technologies and free licences.

However detailed the European Union budget is, one cannot actually calculate the annual costs of not having a common national language as Modern Indo-European.

7. Function as Think Tank in Brussels, influencing the policies of the European Union with legal and legitimate means, pushing for a more pro-Europeanist approach and the Indo-European language adoption as the national language.

European Union Expenditure

The actual costs that the European Union bears because of not having a common national language (apart from some officiously selected lingua franca) is incalculable; just compare how businesses, politics, students and people behave within the United States, and how they function within the EU. Without a common language, the Union is nothing more than a customs union, whatever the intention of its member states. There are some limited and intentionally obscure statistics, though, as to how the direct expenditure of the EU institutions are:

Beginning with the Lingua programme in 1990, the European Union invests more than €30 million a year (out of a €120 billion EU budget) promoting language learning through the Socrates and Leonardo da Vinci programmes in: bursaries to enable language teachers to be trained abroad, placing foreign language assistants in schools, funding class exchanges to motivate pupils to learn languages, creating new language courses on CDs and the Internet and projects that raise awareness of the benefits of language learning.

Expenses related to the lack of a common language are impossible to ascertain.

Also, 13% of the annual budget for administration (6% of the European Union total) is dedicated to translation and interpretation, with more than 2.000 public employers working to translate and interpret – whether immediatly or not – the most they can to every language pair. Recent statistics talk about 1.123 million euros invested in translation and interpretation, a total of 1% of the total budget, “2,28 euros per capita”, as the European Union likes to point out, i.e., 1 of each 100 euros that we pay in taxes for the Union is dedicated exclusively to the translation of papers, websites, to the Europarliament sessions, etc. Furthermore, we are paying 25 million euros for each language made official; however, only English is really promoted within the institutions, French is sometimes also used, and Germans complaint because they want their language to be at least as important as French... And all this for “just 2,28 euros per capita” annually; wow, what a bargain!

François Grin, specialist in economics of linguistics and linguistic policy, published in 2005 a report in which he pointed out that Great Britain, because of the predominance of its language within the Union, had between 17.000 y 18.000 million euros a year for language learning, thus profiting from the need of the other member states (imposed by our public institutions) to learn English. Not to talk about the other English-speaking countries (as the US, Canada, Australia, South Africa, etc.), which profit from Europeans because of our own choice.

Both especialized industries, of translating-interpreting in Brussels, and of language teaching and learning in the UK, could adapt themselves and profit from the increase of businesses and jobs based on Indo-European language translation and learning needs.

The loss of thousands of jobs of EU’s translators and interpreters, as well as the decrease in UK’s GDP because of the adoption of MIE, are then not only avoidable, but even just another excuse – they are in fact in a better position to handle such a change than other national companies and institutions within the EU. It is, then, a question of willingness (of Brussels and England) to adopt a common natural language, beyond almost every other consideration.

III.5. Conclusion

As a conclusion, we can only say that, paradoxically, even if this simple study was correctly made, there are three main factors which have determined the success of the Hebrew language revival, whilst other revival attempts, as that of Latin or Coptic, or artificial language adoptions (as Esperanto, Ido, Interlingua, Lojban, etc.) have completely failed:

1. The real necessity of a common language (not just a lingua franca) among tiny workgroups – as in the first schools of Israel, which needed a common language other than English or French to teach to multilingual pupils. Such immediate necessity could show the real need for a common language in Europe, and help boost the Indo-European language revival. As an example, compare that, even if mobile phones seem to be now a need for most people, fifteen years ago it was a luxury good, only owned by those who needed it the most, as brokers; it was because of that first step – with big economic efforts for a then still inaccurate technology – of those who needed it the most, that the rest of us realized the advantages of the new technology, and that it spread to reach everyone.

NOTE. As a first step toward the realizing of such actual need, we are currently implementing a change in European education for the next years – beginning with the Spanish education system in the 11^th and 12^th year –, namely the promotion of the teaching of a more general subject in the high school, “European Languages”, to substitute the current traditional optative/obligatory subjects “Latin”, “Greek” or “Classical Culture”, as well as third languages like “French”, “German”, “Russian”, “Italian”, etc.

The learning of such a subject (which would mainly give general notions on Proto-Indo-European and IE dialects of Europe like Latin, Germanic, Greek, Balto-Slavic, Celtic and Albanian) could easily demonstrate how those students who have passed it show 1) a greater understanding of foreign Indo-European languages of Europe, and especially 2) how they learn other European languages more easily, compared to those students who have learnt merely a third IE language (either dead or alive), apart from the obligatory national and/or co-official and the second language.

2. The individual will of people to learn such a language. Unlike Esperanto, Latin, French or English, the Jews of Palestine learnt the reconstructed Modern Hebrew as an own language, not because of some external imposition, but mainly because of the thousands who (one-by-one or group-by-group) decided freely to learn it and use it openly with others. After more than a century of unending invented languages, there are still people who think that a language can be imposed by way of asserting the social advantages of its adoption – viz. ease of use, cultural ‘neutrality’, or even supposed “number of speakers”. However, their obvious lack of success, along with the boom of national and regional languages’ revival during the same period, shows that – whatever the underlying sociological and psychological foundations for such a behaviour –, it is not only cold reason and perfect philosophy what makes people learn and adopt a language as an own one, but also passion and desire, love for the own, interest for the old, maybe also fear for the foreign, etc.

3. The support of public institutions, from some point on, will also be necessary. However, we are convinced about its secondary role in the adoption of Modern Indo-European in Europe. With the television, the Internet, and other modern technologies, as well as libre culture and licences – and maybe also the growing culture of small private donations –, the support of the institutions of the European Union is not necessary in these first steps of the linguistic revival, until it becomes a language really used by young people within the Union.

Etymological Notes

Vocabulary is one of the best reconstructed parts of the Late Proto-Indo-European language. Indo-European studies have extensively dealt with the reconstruction of common PIE words and its derivatives, and lots of modern dictionaries of IE languages as Latin, English, German, Greek, Sanskrit, etc. already give etymologies in PIE roots apart from the oldest forms in their languages.

NOTE. There are some excellent free databases on IE etymologies, which make printed works unnecessary, as they become quicly outdated by the continuated corrections and additions. Links to online databases on PIE and IE languages are available at our website, where Pokorny’s Etymological Dictionary might be downloaded in PDF <http://dnghu.org/en/Indo-European%20etymological%20dictionary/> or directly consulted in HTML format at <http://dnghu.org/indoeuropean.html>. Common Proto-Indo-European words to be used in MIE can be looked for with the PDf or Excell document at http://dnghu.org/en/proto-indo-european-language/, and our Indo-European translator-dictionary <http://indo-european.info/> allows translation of whole sentences and contains a Wiki Etymology Dictionary.

Good resources might also be found at <http://www.indo-european.nl/>, managed by the Department of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics at Leiden University, and in The Tower of Babel <http://starling.rinet.ru/>, a project oriented to Eurasiatic, Nostratic and the like, less focused on PIE proper, but sharing downloadable software and PDFs for quick offline queries.

These notes are not intended to substitute the existing reference works, and indeed not to substitute the common PIE vocabulary to be used in Modern Indo-European, but just to facilitate the comprehension of Proto-Indo-European roots in light of their derivatives (and related to the vocabulary used in this grammar), showing also reconstructed IE forms based on the common English vocabulary.

Many reconstructed derivatives are then from Germanic or from international words of Graeco-Latin origin, but this doesn’t imply we recommend their use over other common PIE words: for example, Latin loans *gnātionālís, national, or *gnātionlitā-, nationality, are not used in some Germanic and most Slavic languages, and should be substituted by other, ‘purer’ or ‘less biased’ Proto-Indo-European terms (see notes 41 and 77). Also, non-IE suffixes Lat. aiqi-, “aequi-”, Gmc. iso-, “ice-”, Gk. geo-, could be substituted by common PIE formations, and secondary formations as e.g. Lat. re-, “again”, could be replaced by a ‘purer’ IE ati-, and suffix -ti could be used instead of secondary Ita., Arm. -tio(n), etc.

NOTE. For Modern Indo-European ār- (PIH arH-), compare Hitt. arha, “border” (cf. arha kisai, “dismantle”), Gk. ορος, O.Ind. āre, “far”, etc. However, its original meaning as a prefix was probably not “(do) again” as in Lat. re-, but instead “get back to the original situation” (a use replaced in Latin by prefix dis-), cf. Lat. resuō, “unstitch”, respiciō, “look back”, reiciō, “reject”, etc.

1. Carlos Quiles, translated as Modern Indo-European Górilos Kūriakī, lit. Old-man (Son-)of-“of-the-Lord”:

a. Carlos is a popular Spanish name derived from Germanic *karilaz, whose basic meaning is “old man”. In Finnish, the Germanic word was borrowed and survives almost unchanged as karilas. The Old Norse descendant of the Germanic word, karl, means “old man, servant”, and the Old High German equivalent, karal/keral, meaning “man, lover, husband”, has become the name Karl and noun Kerl, and appears also as O.Eng. Ceorl (Eng. churl), “freeman of the lowest class”. Middle High German karl, “freeman”, was adopted into northern French as Charles, from which we have the name Charles. The Medieval Latin form Carolus is based on the Old High German karal. The fame of Carolus Magnus, “Charles the Great”, or Charlemagne, added luster to the name Carolus and explains why the Slavic languages borrowed the name as their general word for “king”, korol' in Russian. Gmc. karilaz/kerilaz should thus be translated as proper PIE adjective gorilós/gerilós, and therefore as proper MIE name m. Górilos, f. Górilā, cf. Gk. γηραλέος, “old”, γέρων (as in Eng. geriatrics), O.C.S. zьrělъ; also, cf. O.Ind. járant, Lat. glarea, etc.

Compare also with the etymology for gorilla, MIE gorillā, coming from Gk. pl. goríllai (MIE gorillās), pl. of name given to wild, hairy women in Gk. translation of Carthaginian navigator Hanno's account of a tribe seen in his explorations along the N.W. coast of Africa (Sierra Leone), c. 500 B.C. Knowing that story, U.S. missionary Thomas Savage applied that name to the apes (Troglodytes gorills) he saw in that region in 1847.

b. Quiles is a genitive, and means “(son) of quili” (cf. Spa. Quílez, Cat. Quilis, Ast. Quirós, Gal-Pt. Quiris). It comes, from mediaeval noun Quirici->Quili (shortened and with r->l), a loan word from Gk. Κυριακος (Indo-European kūriakos), “of the Lord”, from which It./Spa. Quirico, Gl.-Pt. Queirici, Cat. Quirce, Fr. Quirice, O.N. kirkja, Eng. church, Scots kirk or Ger. Kirche. PIE root keu- means swell. IE kūrios means master, lord, as Gk. κυριος, and adjective Kyriakos was used as Roman cognomen Cyriacos. Kūriakī should then be the proper genitive of the MIE loan-translated Greek term, meaning.

2. For PIE root bhā- (PIH *b^heh₂ colored into *b^hah₁) compare modern derivatives: zero-grade (bha-) suffixed bhauknos, beacon, signal, as Gmc. bauknaz (cf. O.E. beacen, O.Fris. bacen, M.Du. bokin, O.H.G. bouhhan, O.Fr. boue, “buoy”), bhasiā, berry (“bright-coloured fruit”), as Gmc. bazjo (cf. O.E. berie, berige, O.H.G. beri, Frank. bram-besi into O.Fr. framboise, “raspberry”, MIE bhrambhasiā); bhanduos, banner, identifying sign, standard, hence “company united under a particular banner” as Gmc. bandwaz (cf. Goth. banwa, also L.Lat. bandum into Sp. banda); suffixed zero-grade bhauōs, bhauotós, light, as Gk. φῶς, φωτός, (MIE bhauōs, bhauesós), as in common borrowings bhauotogrbhíā, MIE bhauesogrbhíā, (see gerbh-), photography, or bhauōsbhoros, “bearing light”, morning star, phosphorus. See bhā- for more IE derivatives.

3. Modern derivatives from IE dṇghūs, language, are usually feminine (as general dṇghwā), but for extended in -i Bal.-Sla. dṇghwis, cf. Baltic leĩǯuwis, inǯuwis, and further extended in -k-, Sla. ję̄zɨ̄kъ (cf. Russ. язык, Pl. język, Cz. jazik, Sr.-Cr.,Slo. jezik, Bul. език). Compare, for the noun of the English (language), modern Indo-European words: neuter O.E. Englisc, Ger. Englisch, Du. Engels, Gk. n.pl. Αγγλικά; masculine is found in Scandinavian engelsk, in Romance – where the neuter merged with the masculine – Fr. anglais, It. inglese, Spa. inglés, Pt. inglese, as well as alternative Lat. sermō latīnus, and Slavic (following the masculine of the word “language”), Russ. английский [язык], Pol. język angielski, Bul. английски [език], Sr.-Cro. engleski [jezik] etc.); feminine (following the gender of “language”) Lat. anglica [lingua], Rom. [limba] engleză, or Slavic Cz. angličtina, Slo. angleščina, Bel. англiйская; or no gender at all, as in Arm. angleren [lezu].

4. PIE root wer-, speak, (PIH werh₃), gives MIE wṛdhom, word, as Gmc. wurdam, (cf. Goth. waurd, O.N. orð, O.S., O.Fris., O.E. word, Du. woord, O.H.G., Ger. wort), and werdhom, word, verb, as Lat. uerbum, as in adwerdhiom, adverb, or prōwerdhiom, proverb; also weriō, say, speak, metathesized in Greek, as in werioneíā, as Gk. εἰρωνεία; also, suffixed variant form wrētṓr, public speaker, rhetor, as Gk. ῥήτωρ, and wrḗmṇ, rheme. Compare also Umb. uerfalem, Gk. ειρω, Skr. vrata, Av. urvāta, O.Pruss. wīrds, Lith. vardas, Ltv. vārds, O.C.S. vračĭ, Russ. врать, O.Ir. fordat; Hitt. ueria.

5. PIE base jeug-, join (probably from a root jeu-), evolved as O.H.G. [untar]jauhta, Lat. jungō, Gk. ζεύγνῡμι O.Ind. yunákti, yōjayati (<jeugeieti), Av. yaoj-, yuj-, Lith. jùngiu, jùngti; gives common derivatives jugóm, joining, yoke; cf. Gmc. jukam (cf. Goth. juk, O.N. ok, O.S. juk, O.E. geoc, Dan. aag, M.Du. joc, Du. juk, O.H.G. juch, Ger. Joch), Lat. iugum, Gk. ζυγον, O.Ind. yugám, Skr. yogaḥ, Arm. luc (with –l influenced by lucanem, “unyoke”), Toch. yokäm, O.C.S. igo, Russ. obža, Cz. jho, Welsh iau, O.Cor. ieu, Bret. ieo; Hett. yugan; jeugos, yoke, as Goth. jukuzi, M.H.G. jiuch, Lat. jūgerum (from Lat. jūgera, IE jóugesa), Gk. ζεῦγος, O.C.S. ižesa;

6. PIE adjective newos, -ā, -om, gives Germanic newjaz, (cf. Goth. niujis, O.N. nýr, O.Eng. niowe, O.Fris. nie, O.H.G. niuwi, Du. nieuw, Dan., Swed. ny), Lat. nouus, Osc. núvellum, Gk. νέος, O.Ind. návas, návyas, Skr. navaḥ, Av. nava-, O.Pers. nau, Toch. ñu/ñuwe, Thrac. neos, Arm. նռր, O.Pruss. nauns (due to analogy with jauns), O.Lith. navas, Lith. naũjas, Ltv. nàujš, O.C.S. novŭ, O.Russ. новъ, Polish nowy, Gaul. Novio-, O.Ir. nūë, Welsh newydd, O.Bret. neuued, Kamviri nuĩ, Kashmiri nōv, O.Osset. nog; Hitt. newash, Luw. nāw.

It was probably a full grade of nu, now, as Gmc. nu (cf. Goth. nu, O.N. nū, O.E. nū, O.Fris. nu, O.Ger. nu, Du. nu, Ger. nun), Lat. nunc, Gk. νυ, νυν, O.Ind. nū, Av. nu, O.Pers. nūram, Toch. nuṃ/nano, O.Pruss. teinu, Lith. nū, Ltv. nu, O.C.S. nune, O.Ir. nu-, Alb. tani; Hitt. nuwa, Luw. nanun.

7. Indo-European medhjos (from PIE me, v.i.) gives Gmc. medjaz (cf. Goth. midjis, O.N. miðr, O.S. middi, O.E. midd, O.Fris. midde, O.H.G. mitti), Lat. medius, Osc. mefiaí, Gk. μέσσος, O.Ind. mádhjam, Skt. mádhjaḥ, Av. maidja-, Pers. mēān, Illyr. metu, O.Arm. mēj, O.Pruss. median, Lith. medis, Ltv. mežs, O.C.S.. mežda, O.Russ. межу, Polish między, Gaul. Mediolānum, O.Ir. mid, Welsh mewn, Kamviri pâmüč. West Germanic dialects have a common dimminutive medhjolós, middle, as Gmc. middilaz (cf. O.E. middel, M.L.G., Du. middel, Ger. Mittel); Latin derivatives include medhjālís, medial, medhjāliā, medal, medhjā, mediate, medhjom, medium, entermedhjā, intermediate, medhjaiwālís, medieval, medhitersaniós, mediterranean, etc.

PIE me, in the middle of, gives suffixed formes medhi-, among, with, as Gmc. mid-, and meta-, between, with, beside, after, as Gk. meta.

For PIE aiw-, also ajus, vital force, life, long life, eternity, compare Gmc. aiwi (as in O.N. ei, Eng. aye, nay), suffixed aiwom, age, eternity, in medhjaiwom, Middle Ages, medhjaiwālís, mediaeval, prwimaiwālís, primeval, dhlongháiwotā, longevity; further suffixed áiwotā, age, and aiwoternós, eternal, as Lat. aeternus, in aiwoternitā, eternity; suffixed aiwōn, age, vital force, eon, Gk. aiōn; zero-grade compound jucjḗs, “having a vigorous life”, healthy (from cei-, live), as Gk. hugiēs, in jucjésinā (teksnā), “(art) of health”, hygiene, as Gk. hugieinē (tekhnē); o-grade ojus, life, health, as Skr. āyuḥ, or Gk. ouk, from (ne) ojus (qid), “(not on your) life”, in ojutopiā, from Gk. οὐ, no, and τόπος, a place that doesn’t exist. See also jeu-, vital force, youthful vigor.

8. PIE agros, field, also pasture, land, plain, gives Gmc. akraz (cf. Goth. akrs, O.N. akr, O.E. æcer, O.Fris. ekkr, O.H.G. achar. Eng. acre), Lat. ager, Umb. ager (both from earlier Italic agros, district, property, field), Gk. αγρός, Skr. ajras, O.Arm. art.

9. Indo-European sqalos, squalus, shark, (cf. Lat. squalus) is probably cognate with qalos, whale, as in Gmc. khwalaz (cf. O.S. hwal, O.N. hvalr, O.E. hwæl, M.Du. wal, O.H.G. wal), possibly from an original (s)qalos, with a general meaning of “big fish”, then constrained in its meaning in individual dialects. See s-Mobile in § 2.8 for more on such related words.

10. Indo-European aqiā, “thing on the water”, “watery land”, island, is the source for Gmc. aujō, island (cf. Goth. ahwa, O.N. á, O.E. īeg, O.H.G. aha, O.Is. ey, M.H.G. ouwe, Eng. is[land]), as may be seen on Skandinaqiā, Scandinavia L.Latin mistaken form of Skadinaqiā, Scadinavia, “south end of Sweden”, loan-translation of Gmc. skadinaujō, “danger island” (cf. O.E. Scedenig, O.N. Skaney); first element is usually reconstructed as IE skatom, as in Gmc. *skathan, meaning danger, scathe, damage (Goth. scaþjan, O.N. skaða, O.E. sceaþian, O.Fris. skethia, M.Du. scaden, O.H.G. scadon), which could be related to Greek α-σκηθης (a-skēthēs), unhurt. The source for aqiā is PIE root aqā, water, cognate with Lat. aqua, Russ. Oká (name of a river) and, within the Anatolian branch, Hitt. akwanzi, Luw. ahw-, Palaic aku-.

English writing “island” was influenced by French isle, from Lat. insula, itself from MIE énsalā (from en-salos, “in the sea”, from salom, sea, v.i.), giving derivatives ensalarís, insular, ensalanós, islander, ensalinā, insuline, etc.

11. IE lendhom, land, soil, country, region, gave Gmc. landom (cf. Goth.,O.N., O.E., O.Fris., Du., Ger. land), and is derived from PIE lendh-, with the meaning of land, steppe; compare O.Pruss. lindan, O.C.S. ledina, Russ. ljada, Polish ląd, Gaul. landa, O.Ir. land, Welsh llan, Bret. lann.

12. For PIE root ámbhi, ḿbhi, around, about, compare Gmc. (um)bi (cf. O.N. um/umb, O.E. be/bi, ymbe, M.Du. bie, O.H.G. umbi, bi, Du. bij, Ger. um, bei), Lat. ambi, amb, Gk. ἀμφι, Skr. abhi, Celt. ambi. It is probably derived from ant(i)-bhi, lit. “from both sides”, hence older PIH -n̥b^hi. For PIE ánti, front, forehead, compare Gmc. andja (end, originally “the opposite side”, cf. Goth. and, O.N. endr, O.E. ende, O.Fris. enda, O.H.G. endi), Lat. antiae, Osc. ant, Gk. ἀντι, Toch. ānt/ānte, Lith. ant, O.Ir. étan. Anatolian Hitt. ḫanta, Luw. hantili, Lyc. xñtawata support the hypothesis of an earlier PIH locative h₂ént-i – see ant and ambhi.

13. Proto-Indo-European ag-, drive, draw, move, do, act, compare Lat. agere, Gk. αγειν, O.Ir. Ogma, from which agtiós, weighty, as Gk. αξιος, agrā, seizing, as Gk. αγρα, and agtos, in ambhagtos, one who goes around, from Lat. ambactus, a loan word from Celtic. Other common derivatives include agtēiuós, active, agtuālís, actual, agtuariós, actuary, agtuāiō, actuate, agénts, agent, agilís, agile, agitā, agitate, ambhaguós, ambiguous, komágolom, coagulum, ekságiom, essay, eksagtós, exact, eksagō, demand, ekságmṇ, swarm, later exam, eksagmṇāiō, examine, eksagénts, exigent, eksaguós, exiguous, nawagāiō, navigate (from nus), dhūmagāiō, fumigate, (from dhumós, smoke) fustagāiō, fustigate (from Lat. fustis, “club”), transagō, compromise, ṇtransagénts, intransigent (from ṇ-, un-, see ne), litagāiō, litigate (from Latin loan litágiom, litigation), prōdagō, drive away, to squander, (from prō-d-es, be good), prōdagós, prodigal, redagō, redact, retrōagō, drive back, retrōagtēiuós, retroactive, transagō, transact; Greek agogós, drawing off, in -agogos, -agogue (“leading, leader”), as in dāmagogos, “popular leader”, demagogue (from dmos, people), supnagogikós, hypnagogic (from swep-, sleep), pawidagogos, pedagogue, protagonistā, protagonist (Gk πρωταγωνιστής), komagogā, synagogue; suffixed agtiós, “weighty”, worth, worthy, of like value, weighing as much, as in agtiomā, axiom, Gk. ἀξίωμα, agtiologíā, axiology; suffixed agrā, driving, pursuing, seizing, as in Gk. agrā, in podagrā.

For PIE dhūmos or dhūmós, smoke, also spirit, Lat. fūmus, Gk. thymos, Skt. dhūmaḥ, O.Prus. dumis, Lith. dumai, O.C.S. dymu, M.Ir. dumacha, etc. The verb dhūmāiō, smoke (intr.), steam, is attested in Latin, Old Indian and (slightly different) in Greek, but used as transitive only in Late Latin. Dhūmopōnom, smoke drinking, (from dhūmóm pibō, from pōi-, drink), is used in Old Indian, hence usable for ‘medicinal’ smoking. For MIE transitive “smoke”, a common smeughō (also smūghō) is found, cf. Gmc. smūk-a-, smauk-ia-, Bal. smaug-(-ja), tr., smaug-a- c., Sla. smūglъ(jь), Gk. smūkhō, etc.

NOTE. About the accent, cf. Lat. fūmus, O.Ind. dhūmás, Dybo and Kortlandt defend the tone on the first syllable, while Illyc-Svityc and others defend the tone found in Greek and Old Indian. The question is difficult to solve, in light of the situation found in Germanic, and the new (Late PIE) differentiation of nouns with initial accent and adjectives with final one. Maybe with full vowel the tone is on the root, and with zero vocalism it isn’t, cf. Lat. famulus <*d^hHmó, Gk. ἄτῑμος <*n̥qiHmos, etc.

Indo-European swep-, sleep, gives verb swopiō, as Lat. sōpīre, Gmc. swab-ja, swepōs, deep sleep, as Lat. sopor, in compound sweposidhakós (from –dha-k-), soporific; swepnos, sleep, as Lat. somnus, Gmc. swi[f]-n-am., Av. khun, Bal. sap-n-i-, sap-n-a-, O.Ir. sūan, Sla. sъnǭtī, sъnъ, Toch.B ṣpane, swepnolénts, somnolent, or ṇswepniom, insomnia; zero-grade suffixed súpnos, Gk. hypnos, and in supnotis, hypnosis, supnotikós, hypnotic.

For Indo-European pau, few, little, compare derivatives pawós, Gmc. fawaz (cf. Goth. fawai, O.N. far, O.E. feawe, Dan. faa, O.Fris. fe, O.H.G. foh) or paukós, as Lat. paucus; suffixed metathesized form parwós, little, small, neuter parwom, little, rarely; compound pauparós, producing little, poor (IE parós, producing), as in depauparāiō, depauparate, and enpauparāiō, impoverish; suffixed zero-grade púlā, young of an animal, as Gmc. fulōn (cf. Goth.,O.E. fula, O.N. foli, O.H.G. folo, O.Fris. fola, M.H.G. vole, Eng. foal, Ger. Fohlen); extended suffixed putslos, young of an animal, chicken, as Lat. pullus, and diminutive putslolós, Lat pusillus, in putslolanamós, pusillanimous; also, for words meaning “boy, child”, compare suffixed póweros, as Lat. puer, putos, as Lat. putus, and pawids, as Gk. παις (stem paid-), in pawideíā, education, Gk. παιδεία, in enquqlopawideiā, encyclopaedia, from Modern Latin, itself from enquqlios pawideí, Greek “ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία” “[well-]rounded education” (see IE en, q’qlos) meaning “a general knowledge”.

For IE per-, produce, procure, PIH perh₂ (closely related to per-, grant, allot, both from per-, traffic in, sell), compare Latin par- (from zero-grade), in parāiō, try to get, prepare, equip, in adparāiō, prepare, adpáratos, apparatus, apparel, enparāiō, command, enparātṓr, emperor, imperator, enparatēiuós, imperative, preparāiō, prepare, reparāiō, repair, separāiō, separate, sever; suffixed pariō, get, beget, give birth, p.part. partós, in partosiénts, parturient, partom, birth, repariō, find out, repartoriom, repertory; parallel suffixed participial form parénts, parent, as Lat. parēns; suffixed form -parós, producing.

Indo-European per-, grant, allot (reciprocally, to get in return), gives derivatives as partis, a share, part, as Lat. pars (stem part-), in partiō, divide up, share, partitós, divided, share, partitos, division, party, partíkolā, particle (with dim. partikillā, parcel), dwipartitós, bipartite, kompartiō, compart, enpartiō, impart, repartiō, repart, partiōn, portion, a part, Lat. portiō, in prō partioní, in proportion, according to each part, into prōpartiōn, proportion; pār, equal, as in pritā, parity, kompārāiō, comapare, ṇpritā, imparity, etc.

14. PIE mātḗr (also mtēr, from PIH PIH meh₂-ter-) gave Gmc. mōdar, (cf. ON móðir, O.E. mōdor, O.S. modar, O.H.G. muoter, M.Du. moeder), Lat. māter, Osc. maatreís, Umb. matrer, Gk. μήτηρ, O.Ind. mātā, Skr. mātár-, Av. mātar-, Pers. mādar, Phryg. mater, Toch. mācar/mācer, Arm. մայր (mair), Alb. motër, O.Pruss. mūti, Lith. mótė, Ltv. māte, O.C.S., O.Russ. мати, Polish matka, Gaul. mātir, O.Ir. máthir, Welsh modryb, Kamviri motr, Osset. madæ.

IE ending -ter usually indicates kinship (see also pa-ter, bhrā-ter, dhuga-ter, jena-ter), whilst m- is a baby like sound found in the word for “mother” in non-Indo-European languages; as, Estonian ema, Semitic ^cumm, Chinese māma, Apache, Navajo -ma, Vietnamese ma, Korean eomma, Malayalam amma, Zulu umama, Basque ama, Hawaiian makuahine, etc.; also, compare IE-related Hitt. anna, Hung. anya.

Compounds include māternós (or Lat. māternālís), maternal, mātérnitā, maternity, mātríkolā, list, register, and verb mātríkolāiō, matriculate, mātrīks, matrix, mātrimōniom, matrimony; also, māteriā, tree trunk (<”matrix”, the tree’s source of growth), hence “hard timber used in carpentry”, hence (calque of Gk. hūlē, “wood, matter”), substance, stuff, matter, as in māteriālis, material; mātrópolis (from polis), metropolis, as Gk. μητρόπολις, as well as Greek goddess of produce (especially for cereal crops) Demeter, from dē-māter , which have been related to IE de, da, or don.

English “wedding” comes from O.E. weddian “pledge, covenant to do something” from Gmc. wadjan (cf. Goth. ga-wadjon, O.N. veðja, O.Fris. weddia, Ger. Wette), from PIE base wadh- “to pledge, to redeem a pledge”, as Lat. vas (gen. vadis), “bail, security”, Lith. vaduoti “to redeem a pledge”. Development to “marry” is unique to the English language.

15. PIE root leuk- means bright, light, brightness. Compare leukis, light, flame, as Lat. lūx, Gmc. leukiz (cf. O.Ice. logi, M.H.G. lohe), O.Ind. rōcí-, O.Pruss. luckis, Slav. lučь, Arm. lois, as in leukíbheros, “light-bearer”, Lucifer (from bher-, carry, as Greek bhoros, by samprasarana the initial desinence is lost, cf. Lat. uir<*wiros, Lat. sacer<*sakros in lapis níger, etc.); suffixed leukmōn, Gmc. liukmon (cf. O.Ice. ljōmi m., O.S. liomo, O.E. lēoma “radiance”, Goth. lauhmuni “lightning, flame”), and leuksmen, light, opening, as Lat. lūmen, for common derivatives adj. leuksmenónts, luminous, enléuksmenā, illuminate, etc.; louksnā, moon, as Lat. lūna, Praen. Losna, O.Pruss. lauxnos, Av. raoxšnü, M.Ir. lūan, O.Bulg. luna; as in louksnālís, lunar, louksnātikós, lunatic, etc.; suffixed loukstrom, purification, as Lat. lūstrum; leukstrāiō, purify, illuminate, as Lat. lustrare, as in enleukstrāiō, illustrate; leukodhrāiō, work by lamplight, hence lucubrate, as Lat. lūcubrāre, as in eghleukodhrāiō, lucubrate, (see eghs) and eghleukodhrtiōn, elucubration; suffixed leukós, clear, white, as Gk. λευκός; o-grade loukēiō, shine, as Lat. lūcēre, O.Ind. rokáyati, Av. raočayeiti, in loukénts, lucent, loukeitós, lucid, ekloukeitāiō, elucidate, reloukēiō, shine, reloukénts, relucent, transloukénts, translucent; zero-grade suffixed luksnos, lamp, as Gk. lukhnos; and also attributed by some to this root nasalized zero-grade Gk. λύγξ, -γκός, “lynx”, in any case MIE lunks. Common IE derivatives include Lat. lux, lucere, Osc. lúvkis, Umb. vuvçis, Gk. λευκός, O.Ind. roká-, Av. raočant, Toch. luk, Arm. lois, lusin, Lith. laukas, Ltv. lauks, O.C.S. luci, Russ. lug, Gaul. leux, O.Ir. luchair, Welsh llug, Kamviri luka; Hitt. lukezi, Lyc. luga, Luw. luha-. Other common Germanic forms come from -t suffixed léuktom, light, as Gmc. leukhtam (cf. Goth. liuhaþ, O.N. leygr, O.E. lēoht, O.Fris. liacht, M.Du. lucht, O.H.G. lōh, O.Ice. lōn), or léuktiō, make light, as Gmc. leukhtjan (cf. O.E. līhtan).

For PIE root lech-, light, having little weight, lechús, light (also found extended in -is) compare Lat. levis, Gk. ἐλαχύς, Skr. laghúṣ, raghúṣ, Av. raghu-, rəvī (from *raghvī), Kashmiri lo.t, Toch. -/lankŭtse, O.Pruss. lāngiseilingins, Lith. lengva, Ltv. liegs, Sla. lьgъkъ (cf. O.C.S., O.Russ. льгъкъ, Russ. лёгкий, Pol. lekki, Cz. lehký, Sr.-Cr. ла̏к), O.Ir. lugu, laigiu (from *lagiōs), Welsh llai, Alb. lehtë. Other IE derivatives include suffixed lechtós, Gmc. likhtaz (cf. Goth. līhts, O.N. léttr, O.E. lēoht, O.H.G. līht, Swed. lätt, O.Fris., M.Du. licht, Ger. leicht, Eng. light), light, and lechtiō, lighten, as Gmc. likhtjan; also from Latin lechuāiō, lighten, raise, Lat. leuāre, as in léghuitā, levity, adlechuāiō, alleviate, eklechuāiō, elevate, relechuāiō, relieve, relechuánts, relevant; variant lachs, small, as O.Ir. lū-; nasalized zero-grade lṇch-, lung, “light organ”, as Gmc. lungan (cf. O.N. lunge, O.E.,O.Fris. lungen, M.Du. longhe, Ger. lunge), but note that lung is said pleumōn in PIE, cf. Lat. pulmon-, Gk. pleumon, O.Ind. kloman, Bal. plaũtia-, Sla. pl(j)ūtje.

16. Adjective cwós (zero-grade PIH g^wiH-), alive, is the source for Gmc. kwikwaz (cf. Goth. quis, O.N. kvikr, O.E. cwicu, O.Fris. quik, O.H.G. quec, Ger. keck, possibly also O.E. cwifer, Eng. quiver), lat. uīus, Osc. bivus, O.Ind. jīvati, Av. ǰvaiti, O. Pruss. giwа, Lith. gyventi, Ltv. dzīvs. It comes from PIE root cei-, live, compare Gk. βίος (bios), ζωή (zoé), Pers. gaithā, Toch. śo/śai, O.Arm. keam, O.C.S. жити, Russ. жить, Polish żyć, Gaul. Biturīges, O.Ir. bethu, Welsh byd.

17. PIE root leus-, loosen, divide, cut apart, gives extended verb lusō, lose, forfeit, Gmc. lausan (cf. O.N. los, O.E. losian, O.Is. lyja, Swe. sofve), with zero-grade part. lusonós, Gmc. luzanaz, (O.E., Du. loren, Ger. [ver]loren), leusós, loose, untied, Gmc. lausaz (cf. Goth. laus, O.N. lauss, O.E. leas, Dan. løs, M.Du., Ger. los). Compare also Lat. luēs, Gk. λύω, Skr. lunáti, Toch lo/lau, O.Ir. loë, Alb. laj; Hitt. luzzi. It is derived from PIE leu-.

18. For MIE ṛtkos, bear, big animal, from older *h₂(e)rtkos, compare Lat. ursus (from Ita. orcsos), Gk. αρκτος, Skr. ṛkṣa, Av. aršam, Pers. xers, Arm. arj, Gaul. Artioni, Welsh arth, Alb. ari, Kamviri ic, Osset. ærs. Common Modern borrowings include Latin rtkinós, ursine, Artkikós, Arctic (from metathesized *Arktikós), Antartkikós, Antartic (see anti, opposite, in front), Welsh Artkor(i)os, Arthur.

19. Modern Indo-European nmṇ, name, from an older IE II h₁noh₃mn̥, compare Gmc. namōn (cf. Goth. namō, O.N. nafn, O.E. nama, O.Fris. nama, O.H.G. namo, Du. naam), Lat. nōmen, Umb. nome, Gk. ονομα, O.Ind. nā́ma, Skr. nāman, Av. nąman, O.Pers. nāma, Toch. ñom/ñem, Arm. անռւն (anun), O.Pruss. emmens (from emnes), Sla. jьmę-jьmene (cf. O.C.S. imę, Rus. имя, Polish imię) Alb. emër/emën, O.Ir. ainmm, O.Welsh anu, O.Corn. hanow, Bret. ano, Kamviri nom; Hitt. lāman. Common modern words include Latin (from nomen, “name, reputation”), nomṇālís, nominal, nomṇāiō, nominate, dwinomṇiālís, binomial, komnṓmṇ, cognomen, denomṇāiō, denominate, ṇnomṇiā, ignominy, nomṇklatṓr, nomenclator, prāinṓmṇ, praenomen, prōnṓmṇ, pronoun, renṓmṇ, renown; from Greek are onomṇstikós, onomastic, -onomṇ, -onym, ṇnomṇós, anonymous, antonomṇsíā (from anti), antonomasia, eponomṇós, eponymous, suonomṇós, euonymus, snteronomṇós, heteronymous, somonomṇós, homonymous, mātronomṇikós, matronymic, patronomṇikós, patronymic, onomṇtoqoiweíā, onomatopoeia, paronomṇós, paronimous, pseudonómṇ, pseudonym (from Gk. pseudes, “false”) komonómṇ, synonym. Compare also, for a Germanic dialectal lengthened verb nōmiō, name, O.Fris. nōmia, O.H.G. be-nuomen, possibly not reconstructible for PIE.

For PIE qei-, pile up, build, make, compare o-grade qojos, body (as in Eng. cheetah), as Skr. kāyaḥ; suffixed qoiwós, making, (after Pokorny Gk. *ποι-ϝό-ς) in verb qoiweiō, make, create, as Gk. ποιεῖν, qoiweitis, making, and as Greek suffix -qoiweitis, -poiesis, Gk. ποίησις, also from Lat. qoiweití, poesy, qoíweimṇ, poem (Gk. ποίημα), qoiweitā, poet (Gk. ποιητής), qoiweitikós, poetic, epoqoiwéiā, epopee, etc..

Similar root PIE qei-, pay, atone, compensate, gives Gk. time, Skr. cinoti, Av. kaena, O.C.S. cena, Lith. kaina, as well as common MIE o-grade qoin, fine, penalty, as Gk. poinē into Lat. poena, as in qoinālís, penal, qoinlitā, penalty, ṇqóinitā, impunity, qoinologíā, penology, qoinitosiós, punitory, supqoin, subpoena.

20. For -qe, enclitic “and”, compare Goth, O.N. -u(h), Lat. -que, Gk. -τε, Messap. ti, si, O.Ind., Ira. -ca, Phryg. ke, Ven. kve, Gaul. -c, O.Ir. -ch-; Hitt., Luw. -ku, Lyc. -ke.

For MIE non-clitic words meaning “and”, compare especially MIE eti, “out, further”, also “and”, as Goth. iþ, O.N. i, O.E. edw, O.H.G. ita-, Lat. etiam, et (cf. Fr. et, It. ed, Spa.,Ca., i, Gl.-Pt. e, Rom. şi), Gk. eti, O.Ind. ati, Av. aiti, O.Pers. atiy, Phryg. eti, Toch. atas, aci/, O.Pruss. et-, at-, Gaul. eti, etic, O.Bret. et-, O.Welsh et-, at-.

Common Germanic untha (cf. O.N. enn, O.E. and, ond, O.S. endi, O.Fris. anda, M.Du. ende, O.H.G. enti, Ger. und), reconstructed as MIE ṇti, is generally said to be ultimately from PIE anti, in front, although more conceivably a zero-grade form of nasalized *enti, from the aforementioned PIE eti (Adrados 1998). O.E. eac, “also” (as Eng. eke), Ger. auch, are used as the common conjunction in Da.,No. og, Swe. och, from aug, increase.

Slavic “a” comes from IE adverb ad, (PIH h₁d), “and, then”, as Skr. fat, “afterwards, then, so”, Av. fat, “afterwards, then”, while Slavic “(h)i” comes from IE conjunction ei, and, if, as in Gk. e.

21. IE -r, enclitic “for”, cf. Gk. ar, ara, rá (Cypriot er), O.Ind. -r, Lith. ir, “and, also”, ar (interrogative).

22. The Angles are members of a Germanic tribe mentioned by Tacitus, O.E. Angeln, from Lat. Anglii, lit. “people of Angul” (cf. O.N. Öngull), a region in what is now Schleswig-Holstein, in Northern Germany. The adjectives for the older inhabitants could then be reconstructed as Modern Indo-European Angliós. Modern adjective English is a common Germanic formation, derived from IE suffix -isko-; as, Angliskós, Germaniskós, Teutiskós (along with ‘Classic’ Graeco-Latin Anglós, Anglikós, Germanós, Germanikós, Teutṓn, Teutonikós), etc.

The noun Germaniā is from unknown origin. The Oxford English Dictionary records theories about the Celtic root gair. Another theory suggests gar, while the one that derive it from Gmc. gaizo- (cf. O.N. geirr, O.H.G. ger, O.E. gar, Ger. Ger) is one of the oldest theories proposed. It is still a common word in modern languages; as, Nor. germansk, Gk. Γερμανός, Rom. german, Ir. Gearmáinis, Sco. Gearmailtis, Arm. germaneren, Hindi Jarman, Alb. gjermanishte, etc. also in Non-Indo-European languages, like Maltese Ġermaniż, Hebrew germani, Georgian germanuli, Indonesian, Malay, Tagalog, Thai, Xhosa, Jerman, Amharic järmän.

23. For Indo-European wḷqos, wolf (fem. wḷqi/wḷqī), compare Gmc. wulfaz (cf. Goth. wulfs, O.S. wulf, O.N. ulfr, O.Fris., Du., O.H.G., Ger. wolf,), Lat. lupus, Gk. λύκος, Skt. vṛkas, Av. vehrka-, O.Pers. Varkana- (Hyrcania, “wolf-land”, district southeast of the Caspian Sea), Albanian ulk, Lith. vilkas, O.C.S. вълкъ; Rus. волк, Ukr. вовк. Closely related PIE words are wail, wolf, cf. O.Arm. gayl, O.Ir. fáel, and wĺpēs, fox, cf. Lat. uulpēs, Gk. αλωπηζ, Skr. lopāśá, Av. urupis, raopis, Pers. rōbāh, Arm. aluēs, lit. lãpė, Ltv. lapsa. These animals are also a symbol of lust in many old Indo-European dialects.

24. PIE root bher-, bear, carry, also bear children, gave Gmc. beranan (cf. Goth. bairan, O.N. bera, O.E., O.H.G. beran), Lat. fero, Umb. fertu, Gk. φέρω, O.Ind. bhárati, Av. baraiti, O.Pers. baratuv, Phryg. ber, Toch. pär, O.Arm. berel, Lith. beriù, Ltv. beŕu, O.C.S. бьрати, Rus. беру, Polish biorę, O.Ir. berim, Welsh cymmeryd, Alb. bie, Kamviri bor. With the meaning of give birth, compare Eng. birth, Goth. baurþei, Ger. Geburt, Lat. fors, O.Ind bhṛtíṣ, bibhrāṇas, O.Ir. brith, O.C.S. бьранъ. Modern derivatives include bhērā, bier, Gmc. bērō (cf. O.N. bara, O.E. ber, O.Fr. biere, O.H.G. bara, O.Fris. bere, M.Du. bare, Eng. bier); o-grade bhórnom, child, Gmc. barnam (cf. O.E. bearn, Scots bairn); suffixed zero-grade (kom)bhṛtis, birth, as Gmc. (ga)burthiz (cf. Goth. gabaurþs, O.N. byrðr, O.E. gebyrd, Ger. geburt, Eng. birth), bhŕtinios, burden, as Gmc. burthinjaz (cf. Goth. baurþei, O.N. byrðr, O.S. burthinnia, O.E. byrðen, Ger. bürde); compound root bhrenkō, bring (from bher+enk-, reach), as Gmc. brengan (cf. Goth. briggan, p.t. brohte, pp. broht, O.Fris. brenga, O.E. bringan, M.Du. brenghen, O.H.G. bringan); from Latin ferre are common MIE -bher, -fer, bhertilís, fertile, adbherénts, afferent, kombherentiā, conference, kikrombherentiā, circumference, kombherō, confer, debherō, defer, disbherō, differ, ekbherénts, efferent, enbherō, infer, obhbherō, offer, prāibherō, prefer, probherō, proffer, rebherō, refer, supbherō, suffer, transbherō, transfer, woqibherāiō, vociferate; prefixed and suffixed zero-grade probhrom, reproach, in obhprobhriom, opprobrium; suffixed zero-grade bhṛtus, chance (from “a bringing, that which is brought”), as in bhṛtuitós, happening by chance, fortuitous, bhṛtūnā, chance, good luck, fortune; lengthened o-grade bhōr, thief, as in bhortēiuós, furtive, bhorónkolos, furuncle; from Greek pherein are o-grade noun bhoros, carrying, -bhorā, -phore, -bhoretis, -phoresis, -bhoros, -phorous, am(bh)bhorā, (from Lat., from Gk. ambhibhoreus), anábhorā, diabhoretis, (a)subhoríā, euforia, metábhorā, peribhéreiā, bheromonā, etc.; suffixed bhernā, dowry (“something brought by a bride”), as in parabhernaliā.

For EIE nāk-, reach, enough, present with nasal infix nankiō, cf. Lat. nanciō, nactus/nānctus, Balt. nāk, o-grade prefixed (with intensive kom-) kom-nākiō, suffice, as Gmc. ganōkh- (cf. Goth. ganohs, O.N. gnogr, O.E. genog, O.Fris. enoch, Ger. genug). Ultimately from root nek- (PIH Hnek-), variant Greek enk-, carry, gives o-grade noun onkos, burden, mass, hence a tumor, as Gk. ὄγκος, Skr. aṃśaḥ, as in onkogénetis, onkologíā; and Gmc. compoundbhrenkō, bring, v.s. Compare also Gk. ēnekḗ, O.Ind. nákṣati, Av. nasaiti, O.Ir. -icc, O.Ir., Welsh -anc, Hitt. hink.

Greek eú-, ēú-, is usually compared with Hittite āssu, assija-, Lyd. aśaã, Luw. N. Pl. assammas < PIH (e)h₂su “good”, MIE āsús, usually su- in compounds, cf. O.Ind. su-, Av. hū-, hu-, Sla. sъ-dorvъ(jь), Bal. sū-dru-; sw-ei-ka, Gaul su-, Ir su-, so-. The fact that all Greek dialects show the same evolution in this Indo-European root, is considered a rare phenomenon.

Attested derivatives include zero-grade Greek q’qlos/qúqlos, circle, cycle, Gk. κύκλος, (from which L.Lat. cyclus, Eng. cycle), Toch. kukäl/kokale, e-grade qéqlos, wheel, as Gmc. khwewlaz (cf. O.N. hvel, O.E. hwēol, hweogol, O.S. hiughl, O.Fris. hwel, M.Du. weel), and Lith. kãklas, or neuter qéqlom, chakra, circle, wheel, as O.Ind. cakram, Av. čаẋrа, also found as metathesized *qélqos, charkha, as Old. Pers. čarka-, or Osset. calx. it is also behind Lat. populus, although sometimes deemed from from o-grade of pel-, full, as seen in Germanic folk and Latin plebs, probably ultimately from qeqlos, circle, thus “community”, and derivatives qeqlālís, public, popular, qeqlikós, public, from O.Lat. poplicus, which was influenced by Lat. pubes, “adult”, into Lat. publicus, see <http://www.apaclassics.org/AnnualMeeting/06mtg/abstracts/Southern.pdf>. Other derivatives from PIE verbal root qel, meaning revolve, move around, sojourn, dwell, include Lat. colere, “till, cultivate, inhabit”, not originally o-grade in PIE (from basic form PIE qel- → *kwel- → Lat. col-), as in qélōn(os), setler, qélōniā, colony, qeltós, cultivated, qeltōs, worship, cult, qeltēiuós, tilled, qeltēiuāiō, cultivate, qéltosā, culture, ṇqeltós, incult, ṇqélinos, inquiline, etc; suffixed qelōs, “completion of a cycle”, consummation, perfection, end, result, telos, gives Gk. τέλος, -εος (remember that PIE [k^w] becomes Gk. [p] or [t] before certain vowels), giving qeliós, perfect, complete, from which qeliologíā, teleology, qeliom, telium, qeliō, consacrate, fulfill, in turn giving qelesmṇ, consecration ceremony, from which through Arabic tilasm, then It. talismano or Spa. talismán into Fr. talisman; from o-grade qolso-, “that on which the head turns”, neck, hals, are qolsos, Gmc. kh(w)alsaz (cf. Goth., O.N., Dan., Swed., Du., Ger. hals), and qolsom, as Lat. collum, from which derivatives qolsr, collar, deqolsāiō, decollate, behead, etc.; suffixed -qelā, -colous, and enqelā, inhabitant a Lat. -cola, incola; ámqelos (from ambhi, around), “one who bustles about”, servant, as Lat. anculus, giving dim. f. amqillā, maidservant; qolos, axis of a sphere, pole, as Gk. πόλος, also -qólos, herdsman, as couqolos, cowherd, (from cōus, cow), as Gk. βουκόλος, giving couqolikós, bucolic; also, qolōs, wheel, as Slavic kolo, koles (cf. O.C.S. коло, Russ. колесо, Pol. koło); suffixed o-grade qólenos, traffic, as O.Ira. -carana, as in wesāqólenos, “sale-traffic”, bazaar, as O.Ira. vahacarana (see wes-), Pers. bāzār, hence also MIE partial loan wesr or loan bazr, bazaar. Compare also O.N. hjōl, Skr. cárati, Av. caraiti, Old Prussian -kelan, Lith. kelias, O.Ir. cul, Alb. sjell; Luw. kaluti-; zero-grade variant qḷin, again, as Gk. πάλιν, as in qḷíndromos (from Gk. -δρόμος, racecourse), palindrome, qḷínpsēstos, palimpsest, Gk. παλίμψηστος (from Gk. psēn, “scrape”).

A common word for wheel is rotā, from which Gmc. radō (cf. ON rǫðull, O.E. rodur, O.H.G. rad), Lat. rota, Skr. ratha, Av. radha, Lith. ratas, Ltv. rats, Gaul. Roto-, Ir. rath, Welsh rhod, Alb. rrath. Known modern derivatives are Celtic loan word to-wó-rets, formed by IE “do-upo-réts”, “a running up to”, which gives Mod. Eng. tory, from O.Ir. tōir, “pursuit”; also, retondós, rolling, which gave rotondós, rotund, ‘round’, as Lat. rotundus, even though “round” ws said in PIE wṛbhis, “round in line”, orbhis, “round in plane”, and orghis, “round in space”.

25. Compare for PIE ghostis, stranger, guest, Gmc. gastiz (cf. Goth. gasts, O.N. gestr, O.E. gæst, O.Fris. jest, O.H.G. gast), Lat. hostis, hospes (hostis-potes) O.C.S. gosti, OCS gostĭ, Russ. гость, Polish gość; Luw. gaši. Compound ghospóts, host, (Lat. hospes, guest, originally host, “lord of strangers”), gives MIE ghospotālís, hospitable, and also ghospotālis, hospital (from M.Lat. hospitale, meaning inn, large house, “guest house”), reduced as ghostlis, hostel, from O.Fr. hostel, in turn from Lat. hos(pi)tale. For hotel, compare international borrowings from the same French word, with slightly different meanings Eng. hostel-hotel, Ger. Gasthaus-Hotel, Swe. gstgiveri-hotel, Ice. gistihtel, Spa. hostal-hotel, It. ostello-hotel, Pt. hotel, Russ. гостиница (gostinitsa), Uk. готел (gotel), Pol. hotel, Cz. hostinec, Pers. hotel, Ind. hotel, and also in non-Indo-European languages, as Finnish hotelli, Japanese ホステル (hosuteru) - ホテル (hoteru), Korean 호텔 (ho-t’el), Thai โฮเต็ล (hō-ten), etc. The word for ‘hotel’ in Latin, however, was deuersorium, from the same root as Eng. divert.

26. More PIE derivatives related to (s)tauros, (also steuros, both maybe from PIE ster-) are Germanic (s)teuraz (cf. Goth. stiur, O.S. stior, O.N. stjórr, O.E. steor, O.H.G. stior, M.Du., Du. stier; Dan. tyr, Swed. tjur), Lat. taurus, Osc. turuf, Gk. ταυρος, Av. staora, O. Pruss. tauris, Lith. tauras, Ltv. tauriņš, O.C.S. turu, Rus. tur, Pol. tur, Gaul. tarbos, Welsh tarw, O. Ir. tarb, Oscan turuf and Alb. taroç.

27. Indo-European nízdos, nest, resting place, is a secondary PIE root, from ni-, down, + sed, sit. Compare Gmc. nistaz, Lat. nidus, O.Ind. nidas, Skr. nīḍá, Arm. nist, O.C.S. гнѣздо, Russ. гнездо́, Polish gniazdo, O.Ir. net, Welsh nyth, Bret. nez. For mizdhós, compare Gmc. mizdō (Goth. mizdō, O.E. mēd, O.S. mēda , O.H.G. mieta), Gk. μισθός, Skr. mīdhá, Av. mīžda, Pers. muzd, meed, O.C.S. mĭzda, Russ. мзда́.

28. PIE ker, horn, head, gave derivatives kṛnos, horn, Gmc. khurnaz (cf. Goth. haurn, O.E. horn, Ger. Horn, Du. horen), Lat.,Celt. cornū (<*kórnus, a blending with variant o-grade korus, as in Gk. koru-); keruīks, neck, from Lat. cervīx; kérudos, male dear, hart, from Gmc. kherutas (cf. O.H.G. hiruz, O.N. hjörtr, O.E. heorot, M.Du. hert, Ger. Hirsch); keruos, deer, as Lat. ceruus, Welsh carw; kṛsniom, Gk. κρανίον, Lat. cranĭum; kṛsnotom, hornet as Gmc. khurznutu- (cf. O.E. hyrnetu, hurnitu, Du. horzel); kersrom [ke-’rz-rom], brain, as Lat. cerĕbrum (compare also O.N. hjarni, O.H.G. hirni, Ger. Hirn); other derivatives include Gk. καρη, Skr. śiras, srngam, Av. sarah, Pers. sar, Toch. krāñi, Arm. sar, O.Pruss. kerpetis, Lith. szirszu, Ltv. šk̨irpta, O.C.S. чрѣпъ, Russ. čerep, Pol. trzop, Bret. kern, Alb. krye, Osset. sær.

29. For PIE snusós, daughter-in-law, compare Gmc. snusaz (cf. Goth. schuos, O.N. snor, O.E. snoru, O.H.G. snur), Lat. nurus, Gk. νυος, Skr. snuṣā, Arm. nu, OCS snŭxa, Russ. сноха, Polish snecha, Alb. nuse.

30. PIE nebhōs, cloud, evolved as Skr. nábhas, Av. nabah, Lith. debesis, Ltv. debess, O.C.S. nebo, Russ. nebo, Polish niebo, O.Ir. nem, Cor. nef, Kamviri niru; Hitt. nepiš, Luw. tappaš-, Lyc. tabahaza. Suffixed nébhelā gives Gmc. nibila (cf. O.N. niflhel, O.E. nifol, O.H.G. nebul, also found in MIE patronymic Nebhelṇkos, Gmc. Nibulunkhaz, as O.H.G. Nibulunc, Nibulung), also Welsh niwl, Lat. nebŭla, as in nebhelós, nebulous, and Gk. nephelē, as in nebhelinā, nepheline, nebhelometrom, nephelometer; suffixed nebhologíā, nephology; nasalized nembhos, rain, cloud, aura, as Lat. nimbus.

For PIE mē, measure, compare derivatives suffixed mēlos, meal “measure, mark, appointed time, time for eating, meal”, as Gmc. melaz (v.s.); suffixed mētis, wisdom, skill, as Gk. mētis, further suffixed metiō, measure, as Lat. mētīrī, in nasalized p.part. mensós, measured, mensosāiō, measure, mensosālis, mensural, kommensosāiō, commensurate, dismensiōn, dimension, ṇmensós, immense; metrom, measure, rule, length, proportion, poetic meter (referred by some to IE med-), as Gk. μέτρον, in metrikós, metrical, diametrós, diameter, geometríā, geometry, wiswometrikós, isometric, metrologíā, metrology, kommetríā, symmetry. From the same root probably PIE base mḗns, moon, month, cf. Gk. mḗn, Ion. mẹ̄́s, Dor. mḗs, gen. mēnós, Aeol. mēnn-os, O.Ind. mā́s, Av. mɔ̄, gen. māŋhō, Pers. māh, Umb. menzne, Sla. mēsę̄cь, Bal. mēnō̃ (gen. -es-es), O.Ir. mī, gen. mīs, Welsh mis, Bret miz,Toch. A mañ, B meñe, Arm. amis, gen. amsoy, Alb. muai; derivatives include mḗnā, month, moon, as Gmc. mēnōn (cf. O.E. mona), Gk. mēn, mēnē, in derivatives mēnopausā, menopause, ṇmēnosrewiā, amenorrhea, etc.; from Latin extended mḗnsis, also suffixed in -tr-, cf. -mḗnstris, in mḗnstruā, menstruate, mḗnstruālís, menstrual, dwimḗnstris, bimester, dwimḗnstriālís, bimestrial, seksmḗnstris, semester, trimḗnstris, trimester, etc. (see also zero-grade suffix -m(ṇst)ris, month). Compare also suffixed Germanic mḗnōts, as Gmc. mēnōth- (cf. Goth. menoþs, O.N. manaðr, O.E. mōnath, M.Du. manet, O.H.G. manod, Du. maand, Ger. Monat),

PIE mē referred also to certain qualities of mind, as suffixed o-grade mṓtos, mind, disposition, as Gmc. mothaz (cf. Goth. moþs, O.N. moðr, O.Fris. mod, M.Du. moet, O.H.G. muot, Du. moed, Ger. Mut), and Latin mōs, wont, humor, manner, custom, as in loan words (affected by rhotacism) mosālís, moral, mosōs, custom, mosónts(ós), morose.

Also, PIE root mē, big, many, gives suffixed mē-r-, mēri, as Sla. mērъ, Gmc. mērī, mēros, Gaul -māros, O.Ir. mār, māu, Cymr mawr, mwy, Corn moy, Bret meuror, and o-grade Gk. -mōro-; also deemed from this root, comparative mēisós, greater, more, as Gmc. maizōn (cf. O.S. mera, O.N. meiri, O.Eng. O.Fris. mara, O.H.G. mero, M.Du. mere, Ger. mehr), Osc. mais, Av. mazja, O.Ir. mōr; also, superlative mēistós, most, Gmc. maistaz; (Lat. maes, “more”, comes from meg-).

IE medō, take appropriate measures, measure, gives Gmc. metan (cf. Goth. mitan, O.E. metan, O.Fris., O.N. meta, Du. meten, Eng. mete, Ger. messen), also found in Germanic as kommediō, measure, Gmc. (ga)mætijaz (cf. O.N. mætr, O.E. gemæte, O.H.G. gimagi, Eng. meet, Ger. gemäß); another PIE use for mēdos, “smart measure taker, wise counselor”, hence “healer, physician, medicine man”, found in Av. vī-mad-, Gk. Μηδος, Μήδη, and in secondary Lat. medicus, MIE médikos, behind verb medēiō, Lat. medeor, -ērī “look after, heal, cure”, as in Av. vī-maδayanta.; derivatives include medikāiō, medicate, medikinā, medicine, medikós, medical, remediom, remedy; meditāiō, think about, consider, reflect, meditate; suffixed medes-, giving (influenced by Lat. modus) medestós, “keeping to the appropriate measure”, moderate, ṇmedestós, inmodest; medesā, “keep within measure”, moderate, control, ṇmedesātós, inmoderate; medonti, Medusa, from Gk. medein, “rule”; suffixed o-grade modos, measure, size, limit, manner, harmony, melody, mood, as in modā, mode, modelos, model, modesnós, modern, modidhakāiō, modify, modolāiō, modulate, módolos, module, modulus, kommodā, commode, kommoditā, commodity, adkommodāiō, accomodate; suffixed o-grade modios, a measure of grain; lengthened o-grade mōds, ability, measure, as in mōdō, have occasion, to be permitted or obliged, as Gmc. mōtan (cf. Goth. gamotan, O.Fris. mota, O.E. motan, M.L.G. moten, Du. moeten, Ger. müssen, Eng. must from O.E. part. moste).

31. PIE verb gen-, give birth, beget, produce, is a well-attested root which gives derivatives referring to aspects and results of procreation and to familial and tribal groups, e.g. genōs, race, stock, kind, gender, as Lat. genus, generis, Gk. γένος, Skr. janaḥ, giving derivatives genesāiō, generate, genesālis, general, genesātiōn, generation; alternate base gṇ-a-, giving gṇtis, natural, native, clan, kin, race, as Gmc. kundiz (cf. O.E. gecynd, Eng. kind), Lat. gentis, Gk. γένεσις, Skr. jāta, Lith. gentis; reduplicate gígnō, beget, cf. Lat. gignere, Gk. γίγνεσθαι, Skr. jajanti, Av. zīzənti, with past participle gṇtós, Lat. genitós, as in genitṓr, genitālis, komgenitālis, etc.; gṇnskō, be born, from Lat. gnāscī, as in gṇntós, born, maybe also prāigṇntis, pregnant, from older Lat. praegnās, later remade praegnans, etc. zero-grade lenthened gn̅- (v.i.), komgṇntós, cognate; genios, procreative divinity, inborn tutelary spirit, innate quality; engenuós, born in (a place), native, natural, freeborn, then ingenuous, and genuīnós, genuine; engeniom, inborn character, later engine, and engeniónts(ós), ingenious; endogenā, native, indigen; genmēn, germen, as in genmenāiō, germinate, genmenālís, etc. Compare also Gmc. kunjam, Osc. genetaí, Umb. natine, Skr. janati, Pers. zāēdan, Phryg. cin, Thrac. zenis, Toch. kän, Arm. cnanim, Lith. gimdyti, Ltv. znots, OCS zętĭ, Russ. зять, O.Ir. ro-genar, Welsh geni, Alb. dhëndër/dhândër, Kam. zut; Hitt. genzu.

32. tu-stem Lat. nütū (maior- under likewise) “from birth”, therefrom nütūra “ birth; nature, natural qualities or disposition, character; an element, substance, essence, nature”; praegnüs “pregnant”, new praegnans, from *-gnütis.

33. From PIE root weid-, see, know, compare Gmc. wītan (Goth. weitan, O.N. vita, O.S., O.E. witan, O.H.G. wizzan), Lat. uidēre, Gk. ιδειν, ειδοσ, οιδα, Doric Gk. woida, Skr. vēdah, Av. vaēda, Phryg. wit-, Arm. gitem, O.Pruss. widdai (from vidāi̯et), Lith. véizdmi, O.C.S. видѣти, Pol. widzieć, Rus. ви́деть, Gaulish vindos, O.Ir. ro-fetar, Welsh gwyn, Breton gwenn, Kashmiri vūčhūn. Derivatives include weistos (<*wéidtos), learning, wisdom, knowledge, appearance, form, manner, as Gmc. wissaz (cf. O.N. viss, O.S., O.Fris., O.E. wīs, O.H.G. wiz, O.Fr. guise, Du. wijs, Ger. weise, Eng. wise); suffixed weidōs, form, shape, as Gk. eidos, in wéidolom, idol, eidolon, as Gk. εἴδωλον; zero-grade form widiom, knowledge, understanding, intelligence, mind, as Gmc. witjam (cf. O.N. vit, O.S. wit, O.Fris. wit, O.H.G. wizzi, O.E. wit, Dan. vid, Swed. vett, Ger. Witz), also ṇwidiom, ignorance (cf. Goth. unwiti); from zero-grade widēiō, see, look, as Lat. uidēre, O.Ind. vēdayati, Goth.witan, -aida, O.Ice. veita, O.C.S. viděti, Lith. pavydéti, Goth.witan, -aida, O.Ir. fōid-, pl. fōidit; PIE derivatives include weidsō, “visit” (<“wish to see”), cf. Lat. vīsō, -ere, Umb. revestu “revisit”, Goth. gaweisōn, O.S. O.H.G. wīsōn; windō, find, cf. O.Ind. vindati, Ir. finn-, Arm. gint, etc.; wid, cf. O.Ind. vidā, Welsh gwedd as in Ńwidā, Hades, the underworld, perhaps “the invisible”, as Gk. Haidēs/Aidēs; widi, O.Ind. vidyā, Av. viδya ds.; O.Ir. airde, Welsh arwydd, O.S. giwitt, O.H.G. (gi)wizzi, O.E. witt, Goth. unwiti, O.H.G. wizzī O.H.G.gi-, ir-wizzēn, M.L.G. witte, etc.; es-stem, as in weidōs, form, shape, cf. Gk. eidos, in wéidolom, idol, eidolon, as Gk. εἴδωλον; cf. O.Ind. vḗdas, Gk. εἶδος, Lith. véidas, O.C.S. vidъ, M.Ir. fīad m. “Ehrenbezeigung”, O.Ir. fīad, Welsh yngwydd, M.Bret. a goez; other formation weid-so- Goth. -weis, O.Ice. vīss, O.H.G. O.S. O.E. wīs, O.H.G. wīs(a), O.E. wīs(e), perhaps also widésā, Gk. ἰδέα “outer apparition, shape, sight” (if *Fιδέσᾱ); wistós (<*widtós, uisós in Latin), seen, as in wistā, visa, wistiōn, vision, wistōs, visor, adwistom, advice, adwistāiō, advise, enwidiāiō, envy, ekwidénts, evident, prowidēiō, foresee, prowistós, foreseen, ṇprowistós, unforeseen, ṇprowistāiō, improvise, enterwidēiō, interview, enwidiónts(ós), invidious, prāiwidēiō, previse, prowidēiō, provide, prowidénts, prudent, rewidēiō, review, rewistāiō, revise, superwistāiō, supervise, survey; suffixed wistṓr (<*widtór), wise, learned, learned man, Gk. histōr, in wistorí, history, Gk. ἱστορία.

34. Indo-European qēl-, far, gives prefixes qēle-, far off, from Gk. τηλε- (related to qēleios, Gk. τελεος, end, goal, result), and qḷai-, long ago, Eng. paleo-, from qḷaiós, old, ancient, Gk. παλαιός. This PIE base is possibly related (as a lengthened form) to qel-, move around; cf. Skr. caramah, Welsh pellaf, Bret. pell.

It is discussed whether television was formed in Eng. or borrowed from Fr. télévision, in either case from Gk. tele-, “far off, afar, at or to a distance”, and Lat. vision. Other proposals for the name of this then-hypothetical technology were telephote (1880) and televista (1904). The technology was developed in the 1920s and ‘30s. Loan-translated in Ger. as Fernsehen.

English technology comes from PIE tek-, Gk. tektōn, O.Ind. takman, tak-ia-; Sla. tъkā́tī, tъ̃kǭ; Osset. taxun, Arm. tekhem, usually extended tek-s-, weave, also fabricate, plait, cf. O.N. þexla, O.H.G. dehsa, Lat. textō, Skr. takṣati, Bal. takiš-ia-, Sla. tъčь, tъčjā, Hitt. takš. Common derivatives include tékstus, thread, wire, “thing woven”, later text, cf. Gmc. takhtuz (cf. O.N. thāttr, O.H.G. tāht, common in Gmc. for “roof”), Lat. textus, komtekstus, context, prāitekstus, pretext; suffixed tekslā, web, net, warp of a fabric, also weaver’s beam (to which the warp threads are tied), cf. Lat. tēla, Russ. tesla, Ir. tál, also found in adj. suptekslís, thin, fine, precise, subtle (<*sup-tekslā, “thread passing under the warp”, the finest thread); suffixed teksōn, weaver, maker of wattle for house walls, builder, tekstṓr, builder, tekstōn, carpenter, builder, as in tekstonikós, tectonic, or arkhitekstōn, architect (from Gk. arkhein, “begin, rule”); teksnā, art, craft, skill, as Gk. tekhnē, in teksnikós, technical, teksnologí, technology.

Another common IE root for “weave” was webh- (<PIH H^w-) as in verb webhō, Gmc. webanan (cf. O.N. vefa, O.E. wefan, O.H.G. weban, M.L.G., M.Du., Du. weven, Eng. weave, Ger. weben), Skr. ubhati, Av. ubdaēna, O.Pers. baftan, Pers. bāfad, Toch. wäp/wāp, Arm. ven, Hitt. hupala, hupiki, hupra-, Alb. vegjë. A common Germanic word is wobh(i), web, fabric, as Gmc. wobō (cf. O.S. webbi, O.N. vefr, O.E. webb, O.H.G. weppi, Du. webbe, Ger. gewebe), Gk. huphē, also in English loan word Wíralts Wit Wobhiā, World Wide Web, WWW. Maybe originally the same root as webh-, wander, move back and forth as in weaving, as Gmc. wabjan (cf. O.N. vafra, O.E. wafian, wæfre, M.E. waveren, M.H.G. waben, L.Ger. wabbeln), Bal. webǯdē-, wibǯdē-.

Proto-Indo-European wi, apart, away, is the source for adj. witós, wide, as Gmc. withas (cf. O.S., O.E., O.Fris. wid, O.N. viðr, Du. wijd, O.H.G. wit, Eng. wide, Ger. weit), and also for wit(e)ros/m, against, lit. “more apart”, as Skr. vitaram, Gmc. withros (cf. Goth. wiþra, O.S. withar, O.N. viðr, O.E. wið, O.H.G. widar, M.Du., Du. weder, Du. weer, Eng. with, Ger. wieder). Compare other derivatives as Skr. vi, Av. vi-, Hitt. na-wi “not yet”, O.C.S. vutoru, “other, second”, as Russ. второй.

35. PIE agō, drive, draw out or forth, move, set in motion, gives O.N. aka, Lat. agere, actus, Osc. acum, Gk. ἄγω, Skr. ájati, ajiráh, Av. azaiti, Toch. āk, Arm. acem, O.Ir. ad-aig, āin, O. Welsh agit; probably Hitt. aggala-, “furrow”. For more on ag-, v.i.

36. For root legh-, lie down, rest, verb leghiō, as Gmc. ligjan (cf. Goth. ligan, O.N. liggja, O.E. licgan, O.Fris. lidzia, M.Du. ligghen, O.H.G. liggan), Cel. leghjo, Sla. ležjō; cf. Lat. lectus, Gk. λεχώ, Toch. lake/leke, Lith. at-lagai, Ltv. lagača, O.C.S. lego, Russ. лежа́ть, Polish leżeć, Gaul. legasit, O.Ir. lige, Welsh gwal; Hittite lagi.

37. PIE root ped-, foot, Nom. pōds, cf. Gmc. fōts (cf. Goth. fōtus, O.N. fōtr, O.E. fōt, O.H.G. fuoz, Du. voet), Lat. pedis, Umb. peři, Gk. πεζός, Dor. πώς, Skr. раdám, Av. pâda-, Pers. pa, Arm. het, Toch. peṃ/paiyye, Lith. pė́dą, Ltv. pęda, O.C.S. пѣшь, Russ. пе́ший, Pol. pieszy, Alb. poshtë, Osset. fad; Hitt. pata, Lyc. pede-, Luw. pati-.

38. The common verb klus(sk)ō, listen, comes from zero-grade of PIE kleu-, hear, and it has derivatives refer also to fame, word or loud, as in Gmc. khlusinōn, ‘listen’ (cf. O.E. hlysnan, O.H.G. hlosen, Eng. listen), khlūdaz, ‘loud’ (cf. Goth. hliuþ, O.N. hljóðr, O.N. hlud, O.H.G. hlut), Lat. cluēre, Gk. κλυω, κλέος (as in Ἡρακλῆς, Herakles), Skr. śru, srnoti, c̨rāváyati Av. sraota-, surunaoiti, sravayeiti, M.Pers. srod, Pers. sаrāуīdаn, Illyr. cleves, Toch. klyos, klāw, Arm. lu, O.Lith. šlãvė, šlovė̃, Lith. klausau, šlóvė, Ltv. klausīt, slava, slave, O.C.S. slusati, slava, slovo, Russ. слово, сла́ва, Pol. słowo, słаwа, Gaul. clu, O.Ir. clunim, Welsh clywaf, Alb. quhem.

The common Slavic word to define themselves, O.C.S. словѣне, словѣньскъ, reconstructed as an older base [k^jlou-], if ultimately Indo-European (cf. for klutós, “heared, famous”, Skr. śrutá-, Av. sruta-, Gk. lytós, Lat. in-clitus, M.Ir. rocloth, O.H.G. Hlot-hari, Arm. lu), is a demonym whose first reference is probably found in Ptolemy, who identified tribes called Stavanoi and Soubenoi, then translated (6^th century) as M.Lat. Sclaueni/Sthlaueni, M.Gr. Σκλαβηνοί/Σθλαβηνοί. It is thus probably related to either slava, fame, (as slaviane), thus “glorious people”, or from slovo, speach, (as slověne), therefore originally meaning “member of the speech community” (cf. Albanian noun for themselves, shqipetár, derived from shqipónj, understand), in contrast with the Germans, who were in O.C.S. nemici, related to nemu ‘dumb’. Compare with the Greek custom of using βαρβαρος to mean “foreign, strange, ignorant” (derivatives are Lat. barbărus, Eng. barbarian) from PIE base barbar-, echoic of unintelligible speech, like that of foreigners (cf. Skt. barbara-, stammering, also “non-Aryan”). Therefore, a proper MIE reconstruction for such Slavic term is Klówenos, Slav, for словѣне, and Kloweniskós, Slavic, for словѣньскъ, but – because the reconstruction is uncertain, and modern crossed borrowings are usual–, modern loan words Slawenos, Slaweniskós should be preferred.

For common MIE terms – which could be also written with initial klo- instead of slo-/sla-, compare: Slawenos, Slav; Slaweniskós, Slavic; Sloweniskā, Slovakia; Sloweni, Slovenia; Sloweniskós, Slovak; Slowenikós, Slovene; Augoslawiā, Yugoslavia. The later is a compound of MIE reconstructed augós, southern, from ug- (proper IE reconstruction of Slavic jug-), originally referring to a southern wind, possibly ultimately from PIE root aug-, with derivatives meaning increase, enlarge, as already seen.

39. PIE root bhes- breathe, blow, gave Skr. bhas-, Gk. ψυχειν, and is probably of imitative origin. Its zero-grade bhs- gives supposedly *bhsūgh [‘(b^h)su:-k^ha:], spirit, soul, originally breath, life, “the invisible entity behind the physical body” (personified as Psykhe, the lover of Eros), a MIE loan word (bhsūgho- in compounds) from Gk. ψυχή, with an unreconstructed Greek ending -kh-, probably PIE -gh-. In light of O.Ind. bábhasti, some would rather reconstruct PIE spu-, hence MIE metathesized psūgh.

40. Usually reconstructed preposition and preverb *ksun, with, together, as Gk. ξυν, is explained as kom via Greek-psi substratum (Villar). Slavic su-, so/s, normally compared with the Greek form, could in turn come from zero-grade sṃ (see sem, one), as O.Ind. sa. Then compound sṃweitus, council, from Slavic so-vetu, is also formed by O.C.S. вѣтъ, counsel, advice (a loan-translation in Gk. βουλή in ‘συμ-βούλιον’), which comes from PIE root weit-, declare, condemn, cf. Av. vaēð, Sla. vētъ, Bal. wait- f., cf. O.Pruss waitiāt, Lith. vaitenù.

41. IE gn̅tis, birth, family, lit. “that which has been born” (ultimately from gen-), cf. O.Ind. jātís, Lat. nāti-o, Umb. natine, O.E. O.E. (ge)cynd f. “kind of, nature, quality, origin, source, beginning; an ancestor, descendant” (Eng. kind), from base gn̅-, as gn̅s, O.Ind. jā-s “ descendant “,as gn̅i, pra-jā “ progeny “, gn̅pots, jās-patis, “paterfamilias”. Political sense has gradually taken over from racial meaning “large group of people with common ancestry”, hence MIE gn̅tis (or Lat. loan gn̅tiōn) nation, stock, race, and common derivatives include gn̅tís, national (<gn̅tiōnālís) or gn̅titā, nationality, or gn̅tēiuós, native, “innate, produced by birth”, etc. suffixed -tu (v.i.), gn̅tū, from birth, in gn̅tūrā, birth; nature, natural qualities or disposition, character; an element, substance, essence, nature.

42. PIE root for prkskṓ is prek-, ask, entreat, pray, and is cognate with Gmc. frēkhnan (cf. Goth. fraíhnan, O.N. fregna, O.E. frignan, O.H.G. frāga), Lat. prex, Osc. aparsam, Umb. pepurkurent, Skr. prac̨nás, prāś, Av. frāsa, Toch. prak/prek, Arm. hаrc̣аnеm, Lith. рrаšаũ, Ltv. рrаsu, O.C.S. просити, Russ. проси́ть, Pol. prosić, Welsh archaf, Ir. arco, M.Bret. archas. Common MIE derivatives include preks, prayer, as Lat. prex, and verb prekāiō, entreat, pray, as Lat. precāri, in prekāsiós, precarious (PIE proper is dúsopis, cf. O.Ir. domme ‘poor’ <*dus-op-smjo, Lat. inops, O.Ind. durāpah ‘hard to obtain’, etc), deprekāiō, deprecate, enprekāiō, imprecate; from prkskō is extended p(o)rs(k)stolāiō, ask, request, postulate, as Lat. postulāre.

43. Modern Indo-European words for “house”:

A. Derivatives from an original PIE root dem- are dōms, acc. dōmṃ, house, ‘shelter’, cf. Gk. nom. dō, acc. dōma, Arm. acc. tun, also found as common o-stem domos, cf. Lat. loc. domī, Umb. dâmoa, Gk. δόμος, δῆμος (deme), O.Ind. dámas, Av. dąm, Toch. tam/täm, Arm. tun, Lith. namas, Ltv. nams, O.C.S. домъ, Rus. дом, Pol. dom, Welsh tŷ. Also common is the u-stem domus (cf. Lat. domus, domūs; O.Ir. dom-, dam-, O.C.S. domъ, O.Russ. domovь, Arm. tanu, etc.), which gives dómūnos, “house-lord” (cf. O.Ind. damūnas, “housemate”, Lat. dominus, “lord”, see Latin ablaut), and adjective domūnikós. From IE dṓmn is Gk. δῶμα, dome. Probably from same root is base demō, build, as Gk. δέμω, found as “settle, fit” in Goth. ga-timan, O.S. teman, O.H.G. zeman, giving dialectal demrom, timber, Gmc. temran (cf. Goth. timrjan, O.N. timbr, O.E. timber, O.Fris. timber, O.H.G. zimbar, Ger. Zimmer); cf. also Gmc. tumfetìz, (Eng. toft, from O.N. topt), Gk. δάπεδον, Lith. dimstis.

B. For ‘house’ in Germanic languages MIE reconstructs a common kusom, dwelling, shelter, from Gmc. khusam (cf. Goth. -hus, O.N., O.E., O.Fris. hus, Du. huis, Ger. Haus), probably related to PIE root (s)keu-, cover, conceal. Compare in keudh(i)o, hide, conceal, Gmc. kluthjanan (O.E. hyde), Gk. κεύθω, and other derivatives like keudhis, covering, Gmc. khudiz (cf. O.N. huð, O.E. hyd, O.Fris. hed, M.Du. huut, Ger. Haut); Gmc. skeujam cloud, cloud cover, (cf. Goth. skuggwa, O.N. scy, skuggi, O.E. sceo, scua, O.S. scio, O.H.G. scuwo, scūr, O.Ice. skāli, skjōl, M.H.G. hode, Ger. Scheuer), Lat. cutis, scutum, ob-scurus, Gk. κύτος, Skr. kostha, skunati, Arm. cim, Lith. kẽvalas, Ltv. skura, Rus. kishka, O.Ir. cūl, Welsh cuddio.

C. PIE root kat-, hut, shed is probably the source of Romance casa, hence PIE katiā or katsā, as in Gmc. khathra (cf. O.E. heaðor), Lat. catena, cassis (<kat-tis), castrum (<kat-trom) Av. kata-, Pers. kad, O.C.S. kotici, kotú, O.Ir. cathir, Welsh cader. The different warlike meanings found are explained by confusion with a similar PIE root, kat-, troop, battle, in katus, katā, cf. Gmc. kathu-, katho (cf. O.N. hoð, O.E. heaþu, O.H.G. hathu), Skr. śátru, “enemy”, Toch. keta, kete, O.C.S. kotora, Gaul. catu, O.Ir. cath, Welsh cad.

Compare also from other works, Swe. kåta, Nor. kota/kote/kåte (probably borrowed from Uralic kota, as Finnish koti, Est. kodu, Hung. ház), and also Skr. cātvāla-, Av. čāiti, Toch B kotai-, Alb katua, as well as other unexplained words like Bul. къща, Srb.-Cro. kuča, Slovene hiša, all meaning hut, shed, house, or hole, prison, some of them reconstructed as ultimately from PIE root ket-, storage pit (Mallory-Adams).

D. Old Greek οἶκος (oíkos), house, comes from IE woikos, which gave also Gk. οἰκία, house, and Gk. οἰκησις, dwelling, administration, and Gk. οἰκητός, inhabitant; in MIE, it has universal loan-translations like woikonomí, economy, originally “household, management”, from woikonomos, econome, “manager, steward”, woikologí, ecology, woikosōmenos, world, inhabited world (into Proto-Greek woikohōmeno- -> Att. Gk. οἰκουμένη [γῆ], “inhabited [land]”). It is the o-grade form of weikos, village, dwelling, “group of houses”, (cf. Lat. uīcus, Skr. vesaḥ, OCS vĭsĭ, Russ. ves’, Pol. wieś, Lith. viešas), as in weikinos, neighbour, weikinitā, neighborhood, or loan weikslā (from It. villa, country house, villa, farm, from Lat. villa). The noun is derived from PIE root weiks, clan, village, “social unit above the household”; compare Goth,O.H.G. weihs, O.E. wic, Skr. viś, Av. vīs, O.Pers. vitham, Ltv. viesis, Alb. vis; cf. also O.Pruss. waispattin, Lith. viešpats, MIE weikspóts,“clan-master”, landlord, a compound equivalent to dems-póts, “house-master”, landlord, and similar to ghos-póts, “guest-master”, host.

MIE suffix -nomí, -nomos come from IE nomos, custom, law, usage, method, Gk. νόμος, in turn from PIE verb nemō, allot, distribute, divide, manage; cf. Gmc. niman (cf. Goth. niman, O.N. nema, O.E. naemel, numol, O.H.G. nëman, Eng. numb, nim, Ger. nehmen), Gk. νέμειν, Av. nəmah, Toch. ñemek, Lith. nuomas, Ltv. noma, Russ. nemoj, O.Ir. nem. Other known derivatives include nómesos, number, division, as Lat. numerus, nomesālís, numeral, etc. nomā, pasturage, grazing, hence “a spreading, a spreading ulcer”, noma, from which nomads is derived (Lat. nomas); also, nomimós, regular, ordinary, hence “coin, money”, as Lat. nummus, Gk. νομιμος; nomismatis, Lat. numismatis, in nomismatikā, numismatics, from nomismṇ, current coin, custom (from O.Gk. νόμισμα, lit. “what has been sanctioned by custom or usage”), from IE verb nomísō, “to hold or own as a custom, usage, to use customarily, practise, to be used to a thing” (as Gk. νομίζω, in turn from νόμος). Also, Németis, Gk. goddess of vengeance, from Gk. Νέμεσις, “indignation, jealousy, vengeance” lit. “distribution, partition”.

E. For Indo-Aryan ghar, compare a comon IE root ghers-, court, yard.

44. For PIE base potis, powerful, able, capable; also lord, master, compare potō, “be able”, (from Lat. potere), from which poténts (Lat. pres.p. potens) and poténti; cf. also Gk. posis, Skt. patih, Lith. patis. Also found in compounds potsō, be able, (Lat. posse, from potis, able, and es, be), as in potsibhilís, possible, “that can be done”, and potsedēiō, possess (from Lat. possidēre, from potis, “as master”, and sedēiō, sit), which gives potsestiōn (<*pot-s-edtion), possession, forms which are properly expressed by potēiō, as O.Lat. potēō, a verb usual in Romance through a V.Lat. potere, cf. Fr. pouvoir, Ita. potere, Pt., Spa. poder, Rom. putere, etc.

For PIE esmi (PIH h₁es), be, compare Goth. ist, O.N. es, O.E. is, O.H.G. ist, Lat. est, Osc. súm, Umb. sent, Gk. esti, Skr. asti, Av. asti, O.Pers. astiy, Toch. ṣe/ṣei, Arm. ē, O.Pruss. asmai, Lith. esmi, Ltv. esmu, O.C.S. jestĭ, Russ. есмь, Polish jest, O.Ir. am, Alb. është/âsht; Hitt. asa, Lyc. es, Luw. as, Lyd. e-, Palaic aš-.

a. A proper Indo-European word meaning “owe, possess” was PIE verb eikō, be master of, possess, Skr. īṣṭe, iṣah, Avestan īšti, išvan-, and eikōn, property, eikenós, master, owner; as Gmc. aigan-an (cf. Goth. aigan, O.Fris. aga, O.N. eiga, O.E. āgan, O.H.G. eigan, Eng. ought), O.Ind. ī́śāná-, Toch. A akäṃtsune, B ekaññi.

b. For PIE sed-, sit, compare verb sedēiō, sit, as Lat. sedēre, O.Ind. sādayati, Av. ni-šāδayeitiwith, O.Cz. seděti, Germanic remade sitjan (cf. Goth. sitan, O.S. sittian, O.N. sitja, O.E. sittan, O.Fris. sitta, M.Du. sitten, O.H.G. sizzan, sezzal), Welsh seddu; p.part. sestós (<*sedtós) sat, hence sestos, “seat”, cf. O.Ind. sattá-, Av.-hasta-, Lat. sessus, O.Ice. O.E. sess, also Lith. séstas and Lith. sóstas, O.Pruss. sosto; causative sodēiō, place, plant, as Goth. satjan, O.Ice. setia, O.H.G. sezzen, Lat. adsuidi, O.C.S. saditi; with reduplication sisdō (sizdō), put, place, cf. O.Ind. sī́dati (<si-zd-ati), Av. hiδaiti, Gk. ἵζω, Lat. sīdō (<si-zdō), Umbr. sistu; sedlos/sedlā (from *sed-tlo-) seat, position, as Gmc. setlaz (cf. Goth. sitls, M.L.G., M.Du. setel, O.E. setl, Du. zetel, Ger. Sessel), Lat. sella, O.C.S. sedlo, O.E. sadol, etc.; giving sedentasiós, sedentary, sédikom, siege, (from L.Lat. sedicum, although besiege from Lat. is situā, possibly from IE tkei-), dissedēiō, disagree, dissedénts, dissident, adsedēiō, asist, assess, help, adseduós, assiduous, prāisedēiō, preside, resedēiō, reside, supsediom, subsidy (but supsisdō); Greek έδρα, Ice. setr, is PIE sedrā, chair, throne, face of a geometric solid, hence loan translations komsedrós, sitting in council, komsedriom, council (from which Hebrew sanhedrīn, from Gk. συνέδριον), eksedrā, exedra, kátsedrā, cathedra, katsedrālis, cathedral, bishop’s see, qetrasedrom, tetrahedron; Also, from Latin sēdēs, see, seat, residence, sēdā, sedate, settle, calm down; prefixed and suffixed pisediō, sit upon, push, press (pi, from epi) O.Ind. pīdayati, Gk. πιέζω (<πι-σεδι̯ω), kesdō, give up, give after, as Av. syazd-, sižd-, Lat. cēdo, as well as necesse “necessary”, nekestis (<ne-ke-sd-tis, “not something to give after”); for lengthened sēdāiō, calm down, sedate, cf. Lat. sēdāre, M.L.G. sāten; for suffixed sestis, seat, cf. O.Ind. satti-, Av. šasti-, Umb. sersitu, further suffixed as sestiōn, session, Lat. sessiō (<*sessis); compare also Gk. ἕζομαι, Skr. sad, Av. nišaðayeiti, O.Pers. niyašayadan, Pers. nešastan, Toch. sätk, Arm. nstil, O.Pruss. sīdons, Lith. sėdėti, sėdžiu, sėsti, sėdu Ltv. sēdēt, sēdu, Slav. sěděti, sědi̯ǫ (O.C.S. сѣдѣти, сѣждѫ, Russ. сиде́ть, сесть Pol. siedzieć), sěsti, sędǫ (cf. O.C.S. сѣсти, сѫдѫ, O.Russ. сѣсти, сяду, Pol. siąść, siądę), Gaul. essedum, O.Ir. saidim, Welsh seddu, Ir. suidh.

45. For PIE ghortos with the sense of garden, fenced place compare Gmc. gardaz (cf. Goth. gards, O.N. garðr, O.E. geard, O.Fris. garda, Du. gaard, O.H.G. gart), also Lat hortus, cohors, Osc. herííad, Gk. χορτος, Skr. gṛhá-, Phrygian -gordum, Lith. žardas, Ltv. zārds, Gaul. gorto, O.Ir. gort, Welsh garth, Bret. garz, Alb. garth-; Hitt. gurtas. Note the Balto-Slavic terms related to this root and beginning with [g] – as Lith. gardas, O.C.S. gradu, Rus. gorod, -grad, etc. – not affected by satemization, explained as Gmc. borrowing.

46. IE ghrēdhus, hunger, gives Gmc. grēduz (cf. Goth. gredus, O.E. grædum, cognate with Skt. grdh, Gk. -gyros). From the same PIE root is ghṛtāiō, urge on, encourage (from Lat. hortārī, giving eksghṛtāiō, exhort), ghṛis, grace, favor (from Gk. χαρις, which gives ghṛísmā, charism, or (A)sughṛistí, Eucharist), ghṛēiō, it is necessary (from Gk. χρη, which gives ghrēstós, useful, and ghrēstomńdhia, chrestomathy). With the – possibly older – sense of bowels, compare Gmc. gernjan (O.N. gorn, O.Eng. gearn, O.H.G. garn, Eng. yarn), O.E. gorst, Lat. hernia, horrēo, Gk. χορδή, χέρσος, Skr. hirah, harṣate, Av. zaršayamna, Arm. dzar, Lith. žarna, Ltv. zarna, Russ. зор, O.Ir. garb, Welsh garw, Alb. derr; Hitt. karat, and adj. Gmc. grēdigaz (cf. O.S. gradag, O.N. graðr, O.Eng. graedig, Eng. greedy).

47. PIE root ceiw-, live, PIH *g^weih₃-, with metathesized variant cjo- (older *g^wjeh₃, coloured to *g^wjoh₃) gives derivatives zero-grade cwós (<g^wih₃-), living, alive, as Gmc. kwi(k)waz (cf. Goth. quis, O.N. kvikr, O.E. cwicu, O.Fris. quik, O.H.G. quec, Ger. keck, Eng. quick), Lat. uīus, Osc. bivus, O.Pruss. giwа; verb cīwō, live, as Lat. uīuō, O.Ind. jī́vati, Sla. žīvъ(jь), Bal. gīwa; cīwoparós, viviparous, living, alive, as Lat. vivipărus, and shortened cī(wo)parā, viper, “bearing live young”, from Lat. vipĕra (both from IE parós, v.s.); with k-suffix: cīwāks, lively, vivacious, cf. Lat. vīvāx, Lith. gyvókas, O.Ind. jīvaka-; with t-suffix cwotā, life, cf. Lith. gyvatà, O.C.S. životъ, O.Ind. jīvatha-h, Lat. uīta, in cīwotālís, vital. Compare also O.E. cwifer, Gk. βίομαι, Av. gaēthā, jiġaēsa, O.Pers. gaithā, Pers. zēstan, Toch. śo/śai, Arm. keam, giwāntei, Lith. gýti, gyventi, Ltv. dzīvs, dzīt, O.C.S. живѫ, жити, Russ. жить, живу́, Polish żyć, żyję, Gaul. Biturīges, O.Ir. bethu, Welsh byd.

48. PIE root ser- gives sérōs, “guardian”, heroe, Gk. ἥρως, and general verbal base serw-, guard, protect, in serwāiō, keep, preserve, Lat. seruāre, serwiō, serve, as Lat. seruīre, and serwos, slave, servant, Lat. seruus (forms also found in other Italic dialects, cf. Osc. serevkid, ‘protection’, ooserclom, usually considered borrowings from Etruscan); cf. also O.Ind. Av. haraiti, pasuš-haurvō, “shepherd”, Gmc. sarwia, Bal. serg-, Sla. stergt.

49. To refer to a person, man, PIE had root manu-, Indo-Iranian manus, Germanic manwos and Balto-Slavic o-grade monw(i)os. Compare Gmc manwaz/mannaz (cf. Goth. manna, O.N. maðr, O.E. mann, O.S., O.H.G. man, Ger. Mann), Skr. manuḥ, Av. manu-, Pers. mærd, Kurd. mêr, Lith. žmogus, O.C.S. mǫžĭ, Russ. муж, Polish mąż, Kamviri mânša. Compare also with Ger. Mensch, Du. mens, Nor.,Da. menneske, Swe. människa, Ice. manneskja, from Gmc. manniskaz, IE manwiskos, person, human (cf. Romany manush, from Skr. manuḥ). A common European borrowing is ṃbhudhománwos, from compound ṃ(bhi)+bhudhom (from Gmc. budam, O.N. bodh, “command”) + manwos, ombudsman, with the exception of some regionally translated terms, as Fr. médiateur, Spa. defensor del pueblo, etc.

Some names for ‘German’, ‘Germany’, (Fr. allemand, Spa. alemán, Pt. alemão, Cat. alemany, Celtic, like Welsh Almaeneg, Bret. Alaman, Indo-Iranian, as Pers. almani, Kurd. elman; and even non-IE, as Turkish Alman, Arabic almanya, Azeri Alman, Basque alemanera, Guarani Alemaniagua, Malagasi alema, Khmer alaman, Tagalog Aleman), in turn a loan word from the tribal name that the neighboring Alamanni used for themselves. The term comes from Gmc. compound Ala-manniz, PIE reconstructed Alomanwis, with first word from PIE root al-, therefore originally meaning lit. “all men”.

EIE al-, all, alo- in compounds; derivatives include adjectives like Germanic alnós, all, as Gmc. allaz (cf. Goth. alls, O.N. allr, O.E. all, eall, eal-, O.Fris., O.H.G. al); maybe also in Latin al(n)erós, instructed, well-informed, Lat. alers, allers; and Baltic aliós, all, cf. Bal. al-ja- .

50. PIE stem (s)neu- (cf. Skr. snavan-, Arm. neard), an extension of (s)nē-, spin, sew, which gives derivatives nētlā, needle, (with instrumental suffix -tlo-), as Gmc. nēthlō (Goth. nēþla, O.S. nathla, O.N. nál, O.E. nǣðlæ, O.Fris. nedle, O.H.G. nādala), snot, snood, as Gmc. snōdō, or nēmṇ, thread, as Gk. νημα. Compare also Lat. neō, Gk. νειν, νηθω, Skr. snājati, Ltv. snāte, O.C.S. niti, Russ. нить, O.Ir. snáthat, Welsh nyddu, nodwydd.

51. For derivatives of PIE root stāi, hide, stone, also thicken, stiffen, compare stoinos, stone, Gmc. stainaz (cf. Goth. stains, O.N. steinn, O.E. stan, O.H.G., Dan. steen, Ger. Stein), and stājṛ, solid fat, from Gk. στεαρ; compare also Gk. stia, stion, Skr. stjajat, Av. staj, O.C.S. stena.

52. PIE root pūr/pāwṛ, fire, bonfire, is probably derived from an older *peh₂wr̥ (cf. Hitt. paḫḫur) and has an irregular Genitive pūnós. Compare Goth. fōn, Gk. πυρ, Osc. purasiai, Umb. pir, Skr. pu, Toch. por/puwār, Arm. hur, O. Pruss. panno, Polish perz, Cz. pýř. The suffixed form pūris, fire, gave Gmc. fūris (cf. O.N. fúrr, O.E. fȳr, O.Fris. fiur, M.Du. vuur, O.H.G. fiur).

53. IE per- means lead, pass over, as in verb periō, cf. Gk. πείρω (<perio), O.C.S. na-perjǫ; adj. perwṇtós, rocky, noun pérwṇtos, mountain, as Skr. parvataḥ; pertā, cliff, rock (possibly earlier “bedrock”, “what one comes through to”), as Lat. petra, Gk. πέτρα (both dissimilated as *petrā, which means ‘feather’ in MIE, v.i., hence name Peter, from Lat. Petrus, should be Pertos; pertus, place for crossing over, ford as Gmc. ferthuz (cf. O.N.fjörðr, Eng. firth), compare zero-grade pṛtus, going, entrance, passage, modern ford, harbor, port, as Gmc. furthuz (cf. O.Fris. forda, O.E. ford, O.H.G. furt, Ger. Furt), Lat. portus, O.Welsh rit, Welsh rhyd. Other derivatives include o-grade porēiō, drive, ship, travel, Gmc. farjan (cf. Goth. farjan, O.H.G. O.E. faran, O.Ice. fara, O.S. ferian, O.H.G. ferien, ferren, O.Ice. ferja), also iterative behind Lat. portāre, MIE poritāiō, carry, and porit, gate; peritós, experienced, Lat. peritus; poros, journey, passage, way, as Gk. πόρος; porṇos, feather, as Gmc. farnaz (cf. O.E. fearn, M.Du. varn, O.S.,O.H.G. farn, Eng. fern), Skr. n. parn̥a-, Av. n. parəna-, Lith. spar̂nas, Ltv. spàrns; lengthened pōrēiō, lead, lead across, bring to safety, as O.C.S. pariti, O.Ind. pārayati, Gmc. fōrjan (cf. O.E. gefera, O.H.G. fuoren, M.E. fere, Ger. führen).

The name Portugal is MIE Pṛtukalē, Port of “Kale”, as Lat. Portucale, with the second term of uncertain origin, although some relate it to PIE sources akin to Lat. Gallus, “Gallic”, also related to similar Celtic names giving g- or w- (<g^w?) as Gallaecia, Wallacia, Wales, etc. (hence maybe *-cale), Lat. calĭdus, “warm”, or Lat. calx, “lime”.

54. English word “true” comes from O.E. triewe (W.Saxon), treowe (Mercian), faithful, trustworthy, from Gmc. treuwjaz (cf. Goth. triggws O.N. tryggr, O.Fris. triuwi, Du. getrouw, O.H.G. gatriuwu, Ger. treu), ultimately from PIE adj. derwós, dr(e)wós, “belonging to the tree”, wooden, hence “firm, strong” also suffixed dreurós, as dissimilated Lat. dūrus (<*drew-r-os), hard; common PIE noun dru (n.), tree, oak, wood, from root deru-, also drew-: cf. Gmc. trewan (cf. Goth. triu, O.N. tré, O.S. trio, O.E. trēow, O.Fris. tre), O.C.S dravъ, Gk. δρυς, δόρυ, Skr. dru, dáru, Av. dāuru, O.Pers. duruva, Pers. deraxt, Toch. or, Arm. tram, caṙ, O. Pruss. drawine, Lith. derva, Ltv. dreve, O.C.S. дрѣво, O.Rus. дрова, Rus. дерево, Pol. drwa, Gaul. Dervus, O.Ir. daur, derb, Welsh derwen, Alb. drusk, dru/drû, Kam. dâa; Hitt. ta-ru, Luw. tarweja-, and also A.Mac. darullos.

55. For IE root leu-, cut off, separate, divide, cut apart, compare louwā, Gmc. lawwō (Swe. lagg, Eng. lag), O.Ir. loë, lo, Russ. láva, Lith. lóva, Ltv. lāva. For zero-grade forms, compare lúō, loosen, release, untie, as Gk. λύω, Lat. luō, lúēs, plague, pestilence (< “dissolution, putrefaction”), from Lat. luēs, and also selúō, loosen, untie, as Lat. soluere (from PIE s(w)e-lúo-), into p.part. selwotós, untied, as lat. solūtus, etc.

56. PIE belis, power, strength, gives O.H.G. pal, O.Fris. pall, Lat. dē-bĭlis, Gk. βελτίων, Skr. bálīyān, báliṣṭhas, bálam, Phryg. balaios, O.Ir. adbal, M.Ir. bolg, Welsh balch, Kamviri bâlim. O.C.S. бол͂ии, бол͂ьши, болѥ, Russ. большо́й, Ukr. більший, Bulg. бо́ле.

57. Indo-European father, patḗr, is possibly an earlier compound formed by baby-speak sound like pa-(compare modern baby words in your language beginning with p+vowel), probably earlier *ph₂-, and IE common suffix for relatives -ter, a pattern followed in “mother” and other family members, too. It evolved as Gmc. fader (cf. Goth. fadar, O.N. faðir, O.E. fæder, O.H.G. fater), Lat. pater, Osc. patír, Umb. pater, Gk. πατήρ, Skr. pitár-, Av. pitar-, O.Pers. pitā, Pers. pedar, Toch. pācar/pācer, Arm. hair, Gaul. ātir, O.Ir. athir, Welsh gwaladr, Kashmiri petū́r, Osset. fyd.

58. Indo-European bhatis, appearance, phase, gives Greek φάσις (phasis). It is related to verb bhaniō, “bring to light”, makes visible, cause to appear, show, as Gk. φαινειν (phainein), suffixed from common PIE verb bhāmi, shine. It gives also derivatives bhantós, visible, bhantom, phantom, bhantasí, fantasy, énbhatis, emphasis, enbhatikós, emphatic, epibhani, epiphany, bhaniomenom, occurrence, circumstance, also phenomenon, from Lat. phaenomĕnon, in turn from Gk. φαινόμενον, etc.

59. For PIE ana-, breathe, blow, spirit, compare Goth. uzanan, andi, O.N. anda, önd O.E. eðian, ōþian, Lat. animus, Osc. anamum, Gk. anemos, Skr. ānas, aniti, Av. åntya, Toch. āñcäm/āñme, Arm. anjn, hov, Lith. anuoti, O.C.S. vonja, Russ. von’, O.Ir. anál, animm, Welsh anysbryd, anadl, Alb. ajë/âj.

60. The reconstruction of common words for each day in a Seven-Day Week is almost impossible, if not through the adoption of numbers, from one to seven, like the one used by the Roman Catholic Church (Lat. Feriae, used in Portuguese, see dhēs-), Armenia, Greece, Iran, as well as in Arabic, Georgian and Hebrew. However, there seems to be a common old (pagan) pattern, followed in Greek (and partly in Sanskrit), and loan-translated from it in Latin and from this in Germanic.

PIE dhēs (possibly an extension of dhē-, set) is the reconstructed base for words applied to various religious concepts, as dhēsiās, holidays, Lat. fēriae, (O.Lat. fēsiae), dhēstos, festive, Lat. fēstus, in dhēstēiuós, festive, dhēstēiuālis, festival; also, zero-grade dhasnom, temple, as Lat. fānum, in dhasnatikós, fanatic, prodhasnós, profane. Sometimes said to be derived from this root, compare Gk. θεός (theós) “god”; however, because of Lith. dvasià “ghost”, M.H.G. getwüs “ghost” and forms as Gk. θέσ-φατος, “spoken from god”, θεσπέσιος, θέσπις “divine”, it is reconstructed (after Hirt) as Proto-Greek *θFεσός from PIE dhwesós, and therefore related to Hom. θέειον and θέιον, Att. θεῖον “sulphur steam, sulphur” (*θFεσ-(ε)ιον?)]. Thus MIE dhwesós, god, for common Gk. θεός, in apodhwesotis, apotheosis, ṇdhwesós, atheistic, ṇdhwesismos, atheism, endhwesosiasmós, enthusiasm (Gk. ἐνθουσιασμός), pántdhwesiom, pantheon, Gk. Πάνθειον, etc.

NOTE. In Latin, the s before m, n, l, disappears, and the preceding vowel shows a compensatory lengthening; cf. Duenos: cosmis > cōmis; Columna Rostrata -resmom > rēmum; fasnom > fānum, *habēsna > habēna, *catēsna > catēna; candēsla > candēla, *quaisēsla > querēla. , etc.

For PIE “feast”, a more common verbal root wes- was used, cf. Goth. wisan, ON vist, O.E. wesan, O.H.G. wist, Lat. vescor, Skr. anuvāvase, Av. vastra, Lith. švest, Pol. wesele, O.Ir. fíach, Welsh gwest, Hitt. weši.

A. The word for “day” (as opposed to “night”) in Indo-European comes usually from a common dinom (especially in compounds), originally “daylight”, derived from PIE root diw-, shine, as Eng. lent, from Gmc. compound langa-tin-, (probably lit. “longer daylight”, cf. O.S. lentin, O.E. lencten, M.Du. lenten, O.H.G. lenzo), Lat. nun-dinum (compare also general diēs, as in Eng. diurnal, from base *djeu-), Skr. dinam, O.C.S. дьнь, Russ. день, Pol. dzień, O.Ir. tre-denus, Alb. gdhin; it is also found as full grade deinos, Goth. sin-teins, and f. deinā, in O.Pruss. deina, Lith. diena, Ltv. diena – compare also Lat. fem. dinā, in nun-dinae.

B. Germanic ‘day’ comes from old PIE agh-, day, older *h₂eg^h, considered as a span of time, hence “24 hours”, from IE aghōr, aghṇ-, n. cf. Skr. ahar, ahn-, Av. azan-; compare for an original EIE n. dhaghōr, dhaghṇ-, halfday of 12 hours, daylight, Germanic dōg- (<*dhāgh-?) O.N. dṓgn, O.Da.,Da.,Swe. døgn; also O.N. dṓgr, O.Swe., O.Da. dōger O.E., dōgor (-er), -es (along with the common innovative Gmc. dagaz<*dhaghos, as in Eng. day, Ger. Tag, etc.) where the initial dh- is interpreted as from (possibly the original) PIE root dhech-, burn – which gave derivatives with the sense of “hot season”, “summer”, thus maybe evolved *dh-agh- to mean “hot part of the day”, daylight –, as in O. Pruss. dagis, Lith. dagas. Compare from dhech- Lat. fovēre, Gk. -πτανος, Skr. dahati, dah, Av. dažaiti, Pers. dāġ, Toch. tsäk/tsäk, Lith. degti, Ltv. degt, OCS žešti, Russ. sžigat’, žgučij, Polish żgę, Ir. daig, Alb. djek. C

Here is a brief explanation of possible loan-translations of the names of week days into Modern Indo-European in three different calendars, Pagan (like Greek, Roman and Germanic, as well as Sanskrit calendars, the last followed in Indian timekeeping, i.e., modern Hindi, Telugu, Gujarati, Bengali, and even Tamil and Malayalam, beginning in Monday), International (beginning in Monday, similar to the traditional Slavic one), and Christian (counting in Dhēsiās, feasts, from Ecc.Lat. Feriae, see dhēs-), viz:

I. Monday should be Mēnsós (dinom), “Moon’s (day)”. Compare Gmc. Monan-dagaz, L.L. Lunæ dies, Gk. ημερα Σεληνης, and Skr. Soma vāsara (Beng. Shombar). Also, ‘neutral’ Pr̅wóm (dinom), “First (day)”, and Christian Seqondh (Dhēsiā), “Second (Feast)”, i.e. “Feast following Sunday”.

PIE seq-, follow, gives derivatives verb (middle-only) séqomai, follow, Lat. sequor, Gk. hepomai, Skr. sacate, Av. hačaitē, O.Pers. hačā, Toch. säk/, Lith. sekti, Ltv. sekt, Ir. sech Welsh hep. Common modern MIE words include p.part. seqtós, Lat. secūtus, Gk. ἑπτός, Lith. –sèktas, and Latin derivatives seqtṓr, eager follower, seqtā, party, sect, séqelā, sequel, seqenti, sequence, komseqénts, consequent; from 3^rd p. sg. séqetoi, pass. séqetor, cf. O.Ir. sechithir, Lat. sequitur, ekseqomai, carry out, accomplish, follow up, carry out, pursue judicially, punish, execute, ekseqtós, accomplished, carried out, obhseqiom, present, obhseqiós, obsequious, perseqomai, persecute, proseqomai, prosecute, supseqomai, follow immediatly, supseqénts, subsequent; from es-stem seqōs extended seqestḗr, “follower”, mediator, depositary, seqestrāiō, kidnap, séqestrom, sequestrum, kidnapping; seqós, following, along, alongside of, cf. Lat. secus, O.Ind. sácā, as in ekstrēmseqós, from outside, extrinsic, entrēmseqós, from inside, intrinsic; seqnom, identifying mark, sign (from “standard that one follows”), Lat. signum, also seqnā, sign, adseqnāiō, assign, komseqnāiō, consign, deseqnāiō, designate, design, reseqnāiō, return, give back; suffixed soqios, ally, companion, friend (“follower”), cf. Lat. socius, O.H.G. beinsegga, O.S. segg, O.E. secʒ, O.Ice. seggr, Alb. shoku and verb soqiēiō, cf. Lat. soqiare, Gk. ἀοσσέω “help, stand by” (<sṃ-soqiēiō); soqio-, socio-, sóqitis, Av. zero-grade āskiti, “association” (full grade hačiti- “Begleitung”), Lat. ad-soqiā-ti-, sóqietā, society, etc.

II. Tuesday is Taronós (dinom), Thunder’s (day), as it is the day of the gods of war. Mars was called Mavōrs in some poetry (Virgil VIII, 630), and Mamers was his Oscan name. He was also known as Marmor, Marmar and Maris, the latter from the Etruscan deity Maris. If compared with Greek mythology, Ares (Ancient Greek Ἄρης) is the son of Zeus and Hera. Though often referred to as the Olympian god of warfare, he is more accurately the god of savage warfare, bloodlust or slaughter. There may be a connection with the Roman war god Mars, via common Indo-European mar-, crush, smash, destroy, break, possilby through Gk. Ἄρης (<*Ṃrēs?); cf. Lat. morētum, Gmc. marjan, Gk. marái̯nō, márnamai̯, O.Ind. mr̥ṇā́ti, pass. mūryáte, ptc. mūrṇá-; ā-marītár-, “destroyer”, Hitt. marrija-. Compare for a general IE god of war Tarōn (<PIH -rH-) thunder, the Thunderer, cf. Gmc. thunr- (maybe influenced by the former PIE root, cf. O.N. þorr, O.E. þunor, O.Fris. thuner, M.Du. donre, O.H.G. donar), Hitt. ^dTarẋu-, ^dTarẋunna-, “storm god”, Pashto Pashto taṇā́/tanā́, təṇā́/təṇā́ f., Sla. t[ā]ronъ, tъronъ, Gaul (in Lat.) Taranis “thunder god”; Ir torann; Cymr taran id, Bret. taran. For modern names, cf. Gmc. Tiwaz-dagaz, (althoug Tiw, from PIE deiw-, thus , is in fact etymologically related to Gk. Zeus and Lat. Iove, v.i.), loan-translated from L.L. Martis dies, ημερα Αρεως, “day of Ares”, and compare also Skr. Mangala vāsara (Beng. Monggolbar), identified with Karttikeya, the god of war. Compare for PIE eis-, originally maybe denoting “passion, vigor”, hence ‘anger, wrath’: cf. Lat. īra, Gk. οίστρος, ἱερος, Άρης, Skr. isirah, Av. aēšma (as in Asmodeus, v.i.). English “iron” comes from Gmc. īsarnan (cf. O.S. isarn, O.N. isarn, O.E. isærn, M.Du. iser, O.H.G. isarn), borrowed from Celtic isarnon (cf. O.Ir. iarn, Welsh haiarn), from IE ajos (gen. ájesos, PIE root ajos-, older h₂ei̯os), originally metal (“vigorous, powerful material”); compare also Gmc. ajiz, (cf. Goth. aiz, O.N. eir, O.E. ār, O.H.G. ēr, ehern), Lat. aes, Umb. ahesnes, Skr. ayaḥ, Av. ayaṅh, Pers. āhan, Gaul. Isarnodori, O.Ir. iarn, Welsh haearn. Also, Alterom (dinom) or Christian Triti (Dhēsiā).

III. Wednesday comes from North Gmc. Wodenaz-dagaz, “day of Odin” (cf. O.N. Ōðinsdagr, O.S. odensdag, O.E. Wōd(e)nesdæg, O.Fris. wōnsdei, M.Du. Wudensdach; but, from uncertain origin, compare O.Fris. wērendei, Du. wonseldach, South. Ger. guotentag, and even Eng. Wednesday and Du. waansdei, as well as Low Ger. and Du. dial. with initial g-), loan-translated originally from L.L. dies Mercurii, “day of Mercury”, in turn from Gk. ημερα Ερμου, “day of Hermes”, Lat. Mercurius (from merk-, Etruscan root for various economic aspects, as in mérkātos, market, or merkāiō, buy) and Gk. Ἑρμῆς, (also from unknown origin, with some relating it to ἕρμα, a square pillar), both equivalent to Skr. Budha vāsara (Beng. Budhbar), “day of Budha”, the name of the planet Mercury, a son of Chandra, the moon, in Hindu mythology, but the three are unrelated to the Nordic concept of Odin, the “sky-god”, equivalent to Lat. Jupiter or Gk. Zeus.

NOTE. Rübekeil (2003:29) draws attention to the suffix variants *-ina- (in Óðinn) vs. *-ana- (in Woden, Wotan). This variation, if considered at all, was dismissed as “suffix ablaut” by earlier scholars. There are, however, indications from outside Old Norse of a suffix *-ina-: English Wednesday (rather than *Wodnesday) via umlaut goes back to *wōđina-. Rübekeil concludes that the original Proto-Germanic form of the name was *Wōđinaz, yielding Old Norse Óðinn and unattested Anglo-Saxon *Wēden, and that the attested West Germanic forms are early medieval “clerical” folk etymologies, formed under the impression of synchronic association with terms for “fury”. The Pre-Proto-Germanic form of the name would then be *Wātinos. Rübekeil suggests that this is a loan from Proto-Celtic into pre-Proto-Germanic, referring to the god of the *wātis, the Celtic priests of mantic prophecy, so that the original meaning of the name would be “he [the god/lord] of the Vates” (p. 33), which he tentatively identifies with Lugus.

Lugus was a deity apparently worshipped widely in antiquity in the Celtic-speaking world. His name is rarely directly attested in inscriptions, but his importance can be inferred from placenames and ethnonyms, and his nature and attributes are deduced from the distinctive iconography of Gallo-Roman inscriptions to Mercury, who is widely believed to have been identified with Lugus, and from the quasi-mythological narratives involving his linguistic descendants, Irish Lugh and Welsh Lleu Llaw Gyffes.

Julius Caesar in his De Bello Gallico identified six gods worshipped in Gaul, by the usual conventions of interpretatio Romana giving the names of their nearest Roman equivalents rather than their Gaulish names. He said that “Mercury” was the god most revered in Gaul, describing him as patron of trade and commerce, protector of travellers, and the inventor of all the arts. The Irish god Lug bore the epithet samildánach (skilled in all arts), which has led to the widespread identification of Caesar's Mercury as Lugus. Mercury's importance is supported by the more than 400 inscriptions into him in Roman Gaul and Britain. Such a blanket identification is optimistic – Jan de Vries demonstrates the unreliability of any one-to-one concordance in the interpretatio Romana – but the available parallels are worth considering. It has been suggested that the Germanic deity Wotan (English Woden) was influenced by Gaulish Mercury and his name is possibly reflected in Germanic Loki. There is no one-to-one correspondence between Germanic and Celtic gods , though.

Proto-Celtic *Lug-u-s should probably be related to Proto-Celtic *lug- meaning “oath, pledging, assurance” on the one hand and “deceive” on the other (derived from PIE root leugh-, oath, swear, bemoan, lie; Juliette Wood interprets his name as deriving from Proto-Celtic *lug-, oath, which would support this identification of Mercury as a god of contracts; cf. Cel. lugjo-m → OIr lu(i)ge, Gmc. liug-a- (cf. Eng. lie, Ger. lügen), Sla. lъgā́tī, lъžjǭ; Hitt. haluga, “message”. Hence the most suitable name for a Wednesday in an Indo-European Pagan week should be from Lughus, “Oath/Contract/Message-god” (into Cel. Lugus, Gmc. Loki, equivalent to Lat. Mercurius, Gk. Hermes, origin of Gmc. Odin), hence Lughous (dinom), “Mercury’s (day)”.

III.A. Indo-Aryan term Budha (and also Buddha) comes from PIE verb beudhō, awake, notice, become aware, cf. O.Ind. bṓdhati, bṓdhate, Av. baoδaiti, Gk. πεύθομαι, Gmc. biuthan (cf. Goth. anabiudan, O.N. bjóða, O.E. bēodan, O.H.G. biotan), O.Bulg. bljudǫ; participle bustós (<*budh-to-), “awakened, wise; recognized” cf. Skr. buddháḥ, Gk. -πυστος; also, nasalized bundhō, learn, find out, perceive, make aware, announce, cf. Gk.πυνθάνομαι, Lith. bundu, O.Ir. -bond-; and noun f. bustis (<*budh-ti-) understanding, mind, opinion, intention, as O.Ind. buddhí-, Av. -busti-, Gk. πύστις; for beustṓr (<*beudh-ter-), expert, knower, cf. O.Ind. boddhár-, also in Gk. πευστήρ-ιος (“questioning “); for es-stem n. beudhōs, awareness, perceptivity, Av. baoδah- adj. beudhḗs “perceiving”, as Gk. Hom. ἀ-πευθής “unexplored, unacquainted; ignorant”; budhrós, watching, aware, Av. -buδra-, O.Bulg. bъdrъ, Lith. budrùs; beudhis, cognition, Av. baoiδi-, O.Ind. bṓdhi-; compare also Gk. peithein, pistis, Av. buidjeiti, Pers. bēdār-šudan, O.Pruss. budē, Lith. budinti, Ltv. budīt, O.C.S. beda, bljudo, Russ. будет, Pol. budzić, O.Ir. buide, Welsh bodd, Kamviri bidi.

III.B. The new, non-pagan model (cf. M.H.G. mittewoche, M.L.G. middeweke, Du.dial. Midswiek, Fris. metswik, Norw. dial. mækedag, Mod.H.G. dial. Mittag, Eng.dial. Mid-week, and also unrelated Ice. þriðjudagur, “third-day”), influenced by Gothic, was probably adopted from Gk. or Lat. missionaries, avoiding the old pagan week, and is also found in Slavic – and Hungarian – srēda, lit. “middle” (cf. O.C.S. srĕda, Rus. sreda, Pol. sroda), loan-translated from Lat. media hebdomas, itself a loan word from Gk. εβδομάδα, from ἑβδομάς, seven, from PIE septṃā (cf. Gk. ἑβδομαδικός, “belonging to the week”, Alb. javë “week” common Alb. b→v phonetic mutation), translated in L.Lat. as septimāna, from Lat. septem; compare also words for “week” from PIE septṃ in Srb. седмица, Cro. sedmica, Bulg. седмица, Bret. sizhun, Lith. savaitė, Hindi haftā, Hung. hét (from an Iranian source, cf. Kurdish heft, “seven”). Then, Medhj (Séptṃā), “mid-week”, as well as ‘neutral’ Tritióm (dinom) or Christian Qetwrt (Dhēsiā).

Other Indo-European terms for common periods of days:

III.B.1. From IE wigā, turning, succession, variation, hence “work, trade, week”, comes Eng. week, Gmc. wikō- (cf. Goth. wikō, O.N., O.S. vika, O.E. wice/wican, O.Fris. wike, M.Du. weke, O.H.G. wecha, Ice. vika, even Finnish viikko), as Skr. viṣṭi, also in wigis, variation, change, hence trade, exchange, cf. Lat. uix, uicis, O.Ir. fiach, Ice. -vīxl, O.S. wehsāl, O.H.G. wëhsal, wehsil, all from PIE weik/weig, bend, wind; cf. Gmc. wik- (e.g. Eng. wicker), waikwaz (Eng. weak), etc.

III.B.2. Other common word for “week” in Slavic is O.C.S. ten dzień (cf. Pol. tydzień, Slovak týždeň, Slovene teden, Ukr. тиждень, Cz. týden), translated as MIE tod dinom, “this day”.

III.B.3. Ltv. nedēļa is a loan word from Rus. неделя (nedélja), originally Sunday in Slavic languages, IE Nedhēlā, Russ. не-делать, “no-work(ing day)”, composed of:

For PIE ne, no, not, and EIE negative particle nē, compare Gmc. ne-, na-, (cf. Goth. ni, ON né, O.E. ne, O.H.G. ne, Eng. no), Lat. nē, ne-, Osc. ne, Skr. na, Av. na, O.Pers. na, Pers. ن, O.Pruss. ne, Lith. ne, Ltv. nē, Russ. не, нет, Polish nie, O.Ir. ní, Welsh ni, na, Alb. nuk, Hitt. natta, Luw. ni-, Lyc. ni-, Lyd. ni-; also common is zero-grade suffix n- [n̥], as Gmc. un-, Lat. in-, Umb. an-, Gk. a-, an-, Skr. a-, an-, Toch. an-/en-, Arm. an-, frequently found in PIE compounds, as ṇcowijós, “man without cows” (cf. Skr. ágos, Gk. aboúteō, O.Ir. ambuæ), ṇmrtós, inmortal (cf. O.Ind. amŕ̥ta-, Av. aməšа-, Gk. ἄμβροτος), ṇudrós, without water (cf. Skr. anudrás, Gk. ánydros), ṇgnōtós, unknown (cf. Skr. ájñātas, ágnōtos), ṇgṇ(n)tós, unborn, etc. A common derivative is MIE nóin, no, none, originally “not one, not any” (from n(e)-óinos), giving Gmc. nean (cf. O.S., M.L.G. nen, O.N. neinn, M.Du., Du. neen, O.H.G., Ger. nein), possibly analogous to Lat. nōn, non-, although usually explained as nasal extension of o-grade negative particle nē.

PIE root dhē-, set, put, place, gives Gmc. dēdiz (Eng. deed, Ger. Tat), dōn (Goth. gadēþs, O.E. dōn, O.H.G. tuon, O.N. dalidun, O.S. duon, O.Fris. dua, M.E. de, Ger. tun), Lat. faciō/fēcī, facilis, condere, abdomen, fās, Osc. faciiad, Umb. feitu, Gk. θήκη, θέμα, θέτω, τίθημι, Skr. dádhāti, Av. dađāiti, O.Pers. adadā, Phryg. dak-, Toch. täs/täs, Thrac. didzos, Arm. ed, Lith. dedù, dė́tis, Ltv. dēt, O.C.S. благодѣт, дѣти, дѣлати, Russ. деть, делать, Pol. dziać; działać, Gaul. dede, Welsh dall, Alb. ndonj; Hitt. dai, Lyc. ta-.

IV. Thursday is, after the Greek and Roman calendars, a day consacrated to djēus, Zeus and Jupiter respectively; cf. Gk. ημερα Διος (Gk. Zeus has gen. Dios), Lat. Iovis dies, both the “sky-gods” – compare also Hindu Guru vāsara, “day of the preceptor”, for Vjasa, the supreme preceptor of mankind, and Beng. Brihoshpotibar, “day of Brihoshpoti” (equivalent to Jupiter), the guru of the Devas and the arch-nemesis of Shukracharya, the guru of the Danavas. In loan-translated Gmc. thonaras-dagaz (cf. O.N. Þorsdagr, O.E. Þurresdæg, O.Fris. thunresdei, M.Du. donresdach, Du. donderdag, O.H.G. Donares tag), the day is dedicated to a Germanic god whose name is often related to PIE root (s)ténō, resound, thunder, as in Lat. tonāre, Skr. tánjati, Pers. tundar, Pashto taṇā; but for Tarōn, the Thunderer, v.s. Therefore, Diwós (dinom), “Sky-God’s (day)”, Qturóm (dinom), “fourth (day)” or Penqt (Dhēsiā), “fifth (Feast)”.

V. Friday is “Frigga’s day”, wife of Odin in Germanic mythology, goddess of heaven and married love, loan-translation of Lat. Ueneris dies, “day of (planet) Venus”, in turn translated from Gk. ημερα Αφροδιτης, “day of Aphrodite”, the goddesses of love, lust and beauty; also, Skr. Shukra vāsara (Beng. Shukrobar), where Shukra is the name for Venus, one of the Navagrahas, a male planet for the Hindus and named after the Guru Shukracharya. Ἀφροδίτη comes from Phoenician ^cAštart, “Astarte”, influenced by Gk. ἀφρός, foam, having parallels to Indo-European “dawn” god(desse)s, as Vedic Skr. Ushas, Lat. Aurora (reinterpreted as a-Decl. *Áusos-ā), IE Ausōs. Latin Venus comes from wenōs, love, sexual desire, loveliness, beauty, charm, from PIE wenō, desire, strive for, and wṇskō, wish, cf. Gmc. wunskan (O.Ice. ōsk, O.E. wūsc-, O.H.G. wunsc, etc.), O.Ind. vānchati; or wenesnom, Lat. uenēnum, “venom”. Compare for this root Gmc. winnwan (“seek to gain”, O.E. wynn, Eng. win), Gmc. wunēn, (“become accustomed to, dwell”, cf. O.E. wunian, Ger. wohnen, Eng. won), Gmc. wanian (“accustome, train”, cf. O.E. wenian, Eng. wean), Lat. uenia, uēnāri, Skr. vanas-, vanam, vanati, vanik, vanijah, Av. vanaiti, Toch. wani/wna, wins-/winsk, Arm. gun, Cel. wenj (cf. O.Ir. fine, O.Bret. coguenou, Welsh gwen, Bret gwenn); Hitt. wen-, went- (for more on this root v.i. Sla. voin’, “soldier”). For Frigg, compare Gmc. Frije-dagaz (cf. O.N. frijadagr, O.E. frigedæg, O.Fris. frigendei, M.Du. vridach, Du. vrijdag, Ger. Freitag), from IE prijā, friend, in Germanic woman, wife – also Freya, goddess of love and beauty in Norse mithology – Gmc. Frijō (cf. O.N. Freyja, O.E. frea, O.S. frua, M.Du. vrouwe, Ice. Freyjudagr, Ger. Frau, Eng. Freya), itself from PIE root prai-, like, love, which gave prijós, dear, beloved, friend, later noble, as Gmc. frijaz (cf. Goth. freis, O.E. freo, M.H.G. vri, Ger. frei, Du. vrij), and other derivatives related to free, love, friend, like pritus, peace as Gmc. frithuz (O.H.G. fridu, L.Lat. exfredāre, Eng afraid), prijonts, “beloved”, friend, as Gmc. frijands (cf. Goth. frijonds, O.N. frændi, O.E. frēond, O.Fris. friund, M.H.G. friunt, Ger. Freund); also, compare Gk. πραος, Skr. priyah, prīṇāti, Av. frā, Ltv. prieks, O.C.S. prĕjati, prijatelji, Russ. приятель, Polish przyjaźń, sprzyjać, O.Ir. ríar, Welsh rhydd; therefore, Ausosés (dinom), “Dawn’s (day)”, Penqtóm (dinom), “fifth (day)”, Sekst (Dhēsiā), “sixth (Feast)”.

VI. Saturday is a partial loan-translation from Lat. Saturni dies, “day of Saturn”, itself translated from Gk. ημερα Κρονου, “day of Cronus”; compare also Skr. Shani vāsara (Beng. Shonibar), from Sani, one of the nine Navagraha or primary celestial beings, embodied in the planet Saturn. Saeturnus was an Italic god of agriculture, poss. a borrowing from Etruscan, although folk-etymology relates it to PIE sējō, sow, from which Gmc. sējan (cf. O.H.G. sāen, O.S. sāian, O.E. sāwan, O.Ice. sā), Lith. séju (séti), O.C.S. sějǫ (sějati), p.part. satós, sowed, also reduplicated verb s(ē)ísō, cf. Lat. serō, Goth. saian (<saísō), satṓr, sower, hence folk-etymology reconstruction of Ita. Satornos, the Sower. Compare O.E. Sæterdæg/Sæternesdæg, Du. zaterdag, O.Fris. saterdi, M.L.G. satersdach; Ir. dia Sathuirn, Welsh dydd Sadwrn. However, an ancient Nordic custom is preserved in O.N. laugardagr, Dan. lørdag, Swed. lördag, lit. “bath day” (cf. O.N. laug, “bath”). Ger. Samstag (from O.H.G. sambaztag) appears to be from Vulg. Lat. sambatum, from Gk. *sambaton, a colloquial nasalized variant of sabbaton “sabbath”, also attested in Slavic (cf. O.C.S. sabota, Rus. subbota, simbata) and even Hung. szombat; also Romance (cf. Fr. samedi, It. sabato, Spa. sábado, Pt. sabado). The sabbath is observed by the Jews as a day of rest, and comes from Hebrew shabbath, prop. “day of rest”, from shabath “he rested”. Hence, only two names appear to be correct for MIE, IE pagan Satorni (dinom), “Sower’s (day)”, and Christian Sabbatom.

VII. Sunday, the last day of the week – first according to religious tradition –, is the “day of the sun”, Lat. dies solis, loan-translated from Gk. ημερα Ηλιου, compare also Skr. Ravi vāsara (Beng. Robibar); according to Hinduism, Ravi is Surya, the Sun. Therefore, the pagan version should be Sāwlós (dinom), “Sun’s (day)”, gen. of Sāwel, sun, v.i., and in Christian tradition, following Lat. dominicus dies, Gk. Κυριακος, (from Gk. κυριος, lord, with a different IE base), Kuriakós/Domūnikós (dinom).

Indo-European root keu-, swell, in verb kwēiō, cf. Skr. śvayatē, Lat. inciēns “pregnant” (<*en-cu̯iens, as Eng. as Eng. enceinte), Gk. kuéō, probably with the sense vault, hole, behind PIE o-grade kow(i)os, hollow, cave, also kowā (as V.Lat. cova), as Lat. cauus (but cf. Port. covo), Gk. κόοι, Bal. čāwā, Sla. sūjь(jь), M.Ir. cūa, Bret. kéo, cave, kowesna, cavern, kówitā, cavity, komkowós, concave, ekskowāiō, excavate; kówilos, hollow, kowilí, belly, as Gk. κοιλία, and kówilom, coelom, as in Eng. derivatives -cele, celiac, -coel; kowos, hollow place, cavity, as in kówodeiā, poppy head, Gk. κώδεια, which gives kowodeínā (-ínā, “alkaloid”), codeine; zero-grade shortened kúmelos, heap, mass, cumulus, as Lat. cumulus, kumelāiō, cumulate, or adkumelāiō, accumulate; zero-grade kūrós, “swollen”, strong, powerful, hence kūrios, master, lord, as Gk. κυριος, as in kūriakós, “of the lord”, as in MIE Kūriakóm [dōmṇ], Lord’s [dome] (Gk. dōma, dōmatos, from dōms, “house”, see dem-), as Late Greek kūriakon [dōma] (cf. Med. Gk. kūrikon, into W. Gmc. kirika, as O.E. ciricem, Eng. church, Ger. Kirche), used for houses of Christian worship since c.300, especially in the East, though it was less common in this sense than ekklētí (from Gk. ekklesía, see kel-) or basílikā (from loan adj. basilik, royal, Gk. βασιλική, from basiliós, king); from keu- (v.s.), kūmn, a swelling, wave, with Greek derivatives as Eng. cyma, cyme, cymo-, kymo-.

Indo-European kel-, shout, call, PIH *kelh₂, gives verb kálēmi, cf. Gk. Aeol. κάλημι, Umb. kařitu, kařetu, carsitu (<*kalētōd), variant Gk. klēmi, which gives ekklētí, assembly, church, as Gk. ἐκκλησία; and corresponding to (newer) thematic Gk. καλέω, Lat. *caleō (<kalēiō) in “Dies te quinque, respectively septem, calo, Iuno Covella”, and in kálendās, calends, from Lat. kalendae (first day of the month, when it was publicly announced on which days the nones and ides of that month would fall) giving kalendāsiom, calendar; çsuffixed klāmāiō, call, shout, cry out, claim, cf. Lat. clamāre, O.Ind. krándati (<*klem-d-?), O.E. hlimman, hlymman, hlimme, hlemm (<*hlammi), O.H.G. (h)limmen, O.N. hlymja, O.H.G. hlamōn; as in klāmnts, clamant, klāmōs, clamor, adklāmāiō, acclaim, deklāmāiō, declaim, eksklāmāiō, exclaim, proklāmāiō, proclaim, reklāmāiō, reclaim; komkaliom (from kom-, together, and zero-grade *kĺh->IE kal-io-), meeting, gathering, council (“a calling together”); kalāiō, call out, gather, as Lat. calāre, Ltv. kaluôt, as in enterkalāiō, intercalate, kalātṓr, gatherer, nomṇkalātṓr, nomenclator; suffixed klārós (from zero-grade *kĺh), bright, clear, as in deklārāiō, declare; zero-grade klastis, summons, division of citizens for military draft, hence army, fleet, from Lat. classis, also class, from PIE d-suffixed *klad-tis, cf. Gk. κέλαδος.

61. MIE Januarios is probably from IE janos, Lat. Janus, ancient Ita. deity, guardian god of portals, patron of beginnings and endings, lit. "gate, arched passageway" from PIE eími, go (cf. Skt. janaḥ). Other Roman months are Februarios (pl. of Lat. februum, purifications, unkn. origin), Martios, (from Ita. god Mars, Mamers in Oscan, borrowed from the Etruscan deity Mariś as a war/agricultual god Mars and equated with Greek Ares by interpretatio romana, v.s. IE mar-), Aprilis (from Ita. godd. Venus, Etruscan Apru, possibly from Gk. aphrodite), Magios (from Lat. Maia, from PIE meg-, great), Jūnios (from Lat. Jūnō, possibly from PIE jeu-), Djówilios (from Lat. Iūlius Caesar, from djēus, god), Augostos (from Lat. Augustus Caesar, from aug), Septṃmris, Oktōmris, Nowṇmris, Dekṃmris, all from IE numbers following the Roman calendar (which began in March) and adj. suffix -m(nst)ris, Lat. -bris, from PIE mēns, month.

a. For PIE eími, go, walk, compare Goth. iddja, O.E. ēode, Lat. ire, iter, Umbrian ier, Oscan eítuns, Gk. ειμί, ἰών, Skr. ēti, imas, ayanam, Av. aēiti, O.Pers. aitiy, Toch. i, O.Pruss. eit, Lith. eiti, Ltv. iet, O.C.S. iti, idǫ Rus. идти, Polish iść, Gaulish eimu, O.Ir. ethaim, Kamviri ie; Luw. i-.

b. For PIE meg-, great, compare derivatives megos, cf. Skr. maha-, Gk. μέγας, Phryg. meka-, Pers. meh, Gmc. extended Gmc. mekilaz (cf. Goth. mikils, O.E. micel, O.N. mikill, O.H.G. mihhil, M.E. muchel), comparative megiós; compare also Skr. mahayati, mahat-, Av. mazant, Illyr. mag, Toch. māk/mākā, Arm. mec, Gaul. Magiorīx, O.Ir. mochtae, Welsh Maclgwn, Alb. madh, Kurd. mezin; Hitt. makkes.

c. PIE root jeu-, “vital force, youthful vigor”, and its suffixed zero-grade en-stem juwōn, young, youngling, cf. Skr. yuván-, Lat. iuuĕn-is), give juwṇkós, young, as Gmc. juwungaz/jungaz, (Goth. juggs, O.S., O.Fris. jung, O.N. ungr, O.E. geong, M.Du. jonc, O.H.G. junc) Lat. juvencus, Umb. iveka, iuenga O.Ind. yuvaśáḥ, yuvaká-ḥ and Cel. yowankos (cf. Gaul. Jovincillus, O.Ir. ac, Welsh ieuanc); juwents, juwṇtis, young, as Gmc. juwunthiz/jugunthiz (cf. Goth. junda, O.S. juguth, O.E. geogu, O.Fris. jogethe, M.Du. joghet, O.H.G. jugund), O.Ind. yúvant-, f. yuvatí-ḥ, into júwṇtā, youth, Goth. junda and júwṇtūts, Lat. juventūs, O.Ir. ōetiu, ōitiu. For Lat. Jūnō, if the name of the goddess stands for “the young one”, is from stem jūn-, as in Lat. jūnīx, jūnior, O.Ind. yūnī, Av. yūnō, hence in any case MIE Jūnōn.

d. PIE root aug-, increase, gives verb augēiō, increase, augment, enlarge, spread, extend, cf. Lat. augēre, Gmc. aukan (cf. Goth. aukan, O.H.G. ouhhōn, O.S. ōkian, O.E. ēacian, īecan); augtṓr, promoter, producer, father, progenitor, author, cf. Lat. auctor, Umb. uhtur; augtís, increased, high, cf. O.Ltv. aukts, Lat. auctus, Ltv. aũgt, Thrac. Αὐθί-, O.Pruss. aucti-, aucktai-, augtis, an increasing; hence, from the bidding, auction, as Lat. auctiō; augmōn, increase, growth, augment, as Lat. augmen(tum), Lith. augmuõ, O.Ind. ōjmán-. For es-stem augōs, “vigorousness, strength”, cf. O.Ind. ṓjas- n., Av. aojah-, aogah-, O.Pruss. aūgus, also behind Lat. augur (“divine favor, increase”→“he who obtains favorable presage”→ “diviner”), as in enaugosāiō, inaugurate; extended augostos, high, highness, cf. Lat. augustus (highness, “consecrated, holy; majestic, dignified”), Lith. áukštas, Ltv. aûksts. Variant and o-grade wogsēiō, allow to grow, make grow, as Goth. wahsjan (cognate with Du. was, Ger. Wachs, Eng. wax), Gk. ἀ(ϝ)έξω, O.Ind. vakṣayati, Av. vaxšaiti, and noun wogstus, waist, Gmc. wakhstus (cf. Goth. wahstus, O.N. vaxtr, Swed. vstm, O.H.G. wahst); also extended in -s causative-iterative in Gk. αὔξω, also behind augsiliom, aid, support, assistance, from Lat. auxilium

e. Compare for MIE mēns, moon, month, cf. Lat. mēnsis, Gk. μην, Skr. māsah, Av. maoṅh, Pers. māh, Toch. mañ/meñe, Arm. amis, O. Pruss. menig, Lith. mėnuo, Ltv. meness, O.C.S. meseci, Russ. mesjac, Pol. miesiąc, O.Ir. mí, Welsh mis, Alb. muaj, Kurd. mang, Kamviri mos, Osset. mæj. Vide supra, under mē, measure.

62. For season, year, time, PIE had different words

A. From root jēr-, as jērom, year, season, cf. O.Pers. (duši)jaram, Gmc. jæram (“year, season” cf. Goth. jer, O.S., O.H.G. jar, O.N. ar, O.E. ġēar/gēr, Dan. aar, O.Fris. ger, Du. jaar, Ger. Jahr); jōrā, hour, season, from Gk. hώρα (“hour, season, year” as in Mod.Eng. horoscope, hour); also, compare Lat. hornus, Av. jare, O.C.S. jaru, probably originally “that which goes a complete cycle”, from older verbal root PIH h₂eí, go, v.s.

A.a. The best option for “season” in MIE would be to use jērós daitis, “year-time”, loan-translated from IE compounds like Ger. Jahreszeit, Fris. jiertiid, Du. jaargetijde, Swe., Da. årstid, Rom. anotimp, Lith. metų laikas, Russ. время года, Pol. pora roku, Cz. roční období, Slov. letni čas, Bret. koulz-amzer, etc., as a compound from gen. of jērom, followed by daitis, period of time, as Skr. díti-h, “the distributing”, Gmc. tīthiz “division of time” (cf. O.N. tīð, O.S.,O.E. tīd, Du. tijd, O.H.G. zīt, Ger. Zeit), Arm. ti, gen. tioy “age, years, days, time” (<*dī-t(i)-), suffixed zero-grade form of IE dā-, divide, cut up; for extended dām-, tribe, family, into dāmos, Gk. δῆμος, Dor. δᾶμος m. “( people’s division) people, area; the single region in Athens”, O.Ir. dām, O.Welsh dauu; in addition Hitt. da-ma-a-iš (damaīš?) “an other, foreigner, stranger”, from “*foreign people”, Pedersen Hitt. 51 ff.

A.b. Greek word for “season” is IE epsogh, Gk. εποχή, epoch, from PIE roots epi, on, at, and sogh-, o-grade of seghō, hold, as in Gk. ἔχω, Skr. sáhate, Gaul. Sego-, ; other derivatives are seghōs, victory (<“a holding or conquest in Battle”), as Gmc. sigiz- (cf. Goth. sigis, O.H.G. sigi, East Gmc. Sigi-merus, Segi-mundus etc., O.H.G. sigir-ōn; O.H.G. sigu m., O.E. sigor), Gaul. Segisū(*-ō), Sego-, M.Ir. seg, Welsh hy, Illyr. Segesta; seghús, strong, into seghurós, strong, victorious, cf. Gmc. sigus (cf. O.H.G. Sigur-), Lat. seuērus, O.Ind. sáhu-ri-, Gk. ἐχυρός, ὀχυρός; sghol, school, as Gk. σχολή, sghḗmṇ, scheme, as Gk. σχῆμα.

A.c. Also, MIE zero-grade satios, sowing, season, multitude, crow (from seed, sperm, into generation, progeny) as L.Lat. sessĭōnis (O.Fr. seison, Eng. season, Du. seizoen, Rom. sezon), from Lat. satiō (<satjiōn) O.Ir. sa(i)the (<sətjo-), Welsh haid f., Bret. hed m., Alb. hedh; for full grade sētis, seed, semen, cf. in Gmc. sēthiz (cf. Goth. sēÞs, O.N. sāð, O.S. sād, O.Fris. sed, M.Du. saet, O.H.G. sāt, Ger. Saat), Welsh, Bret. had, Corn. has; from PIE sē-, sow (v.s. Satornos), as in sējō, sow, cf. Gmc. sējan (Goth. saian, O.N. sá, O.E. sāwan, M.Du. sayen, O.H.G. sāen), Skr. sāya-, Lith. seju, sėti, Ltv. sēt, sĕti, O.C.S. sejo, sejati, Russ. сеять, Pol. siać, Welsh hil, O.Ir. sí, and Hitt. sai. It gave also a common sēmēn, seed, semen, sperm, cf. Lat. sēmen (Sēmōnēs, “seed gods”), Umb. semenies, O.H.G., O.S. sāmo, O.Pruss. semen, O.C.S. sěmę, Rus. семя, Ger. Samen, even Finn. siemen.

A.d. Other word is statis, stay, stand, position, into Lat. statĭōnis (cf. Spa. estación, Pt. estação, Cat. estació), cf.

O.Ind. sthíti- f., Av. stāti- ‘stehen, Aufstellung”, Gk. στάσις, -εως (from which statikós, static, Gk. στατικός, στάσιμος), Lat. statim, statiō, Osc. statíf , Gmc. stathiz (cf. Goth. staÞs, O.Ice. staðr, O.H.G. stat, O.E. stede, styde), O.C.S. postatь, stati, Inf. Lith. stóti, Ltv. stāt, O.Pruss. stāt; and status, position, statuō, put, place, as Gmc. stathuz, stathwan (cf. Goth. staÞa, O.Ice. stǫð, stǫðva<*staÞwō(n), O.S. stath, O.H.G. stad, stado; M.L.G. stade), Lat. status, statuō, Umb. statita, Bret. steut, Welsh ystawd, Bret. steudenn, Lith. statùs. Ultimately from PIE stā-, stand, with derivatives meaning “set down, make or be firm” and “place or thing that is standing”, as in IE stōdhā, stallion, studhorse, steed, as Gmc. stōdō (cf. O.N. stoð, O.H.G. stuot, O.E. stod, M.H.G. stud, M.L.G. stod, Ger. Stute, and also O.C.S. stado, “herd”, Lith. stodas, “a drove of horses”), Welsh an-sawdd “das Festmachen”, O.Ir. sādud (*stüdh-ī-tu-), and causative verb Gmc. stōÞia, in Goth. -stōdjan “begin”, O.Ice. stø̄ða, also in Lith. stãčias, Lith. statìnė; compare for stā- Lat. sistere, stō, Umb. stahmei, Osc. staíet, Gk. ἵστασθαι, ἱστός, στῦλος, Skt. tiṣṭhati, Av. hištaiti, O.Pers. aištata, Pers. istādan, -stan (country, lit. “where one stands”), Phryg. eistani, Toch. ṣtām/stām, Arm. stanam, O.Pruss. роstāt, stacle, Lith. stojus, Ltv. stāt, O.C.S. стояти, стоѬ, stanu, staru (old, lit. “long-standing”), O.Russ. стати, стану, Pol. stoję, stać, O.Ir. táu, sessam, Welsh gwastad, Alb. shtuara; Hitt. išta, Luw. išta-, Lyc. ta-

A.e. Hindustani mausam (Hindi मौसम, Urdu موسم) comes from Persian موسم, in turn from Arabic مَوْسِم., weather, season, time.

B. Romance languages have words derived from PIE atnos, year (from “a period gone trough”), which gave Germanic and Italic words, cf. Goth. dat. pl. aþnam, Lat. annus (modern Romance Fr.,Rom. an,It. anno, Pt. ano, Spa. año, Cat. any), Osc.-Umb. akno-, from IE at-, go, as in Skr. atati, goes, walks, wanders, note the possible relation to PIE root en-, year, as Gk. ἔνος, O.Ind. hāyaná-.

C. Modern Slavic languages have different words for “year, season”.

C.a Some dialects have IE o-grade ghodhós, originally fit, adequate, belonging together (v.i. for Eng. good), which developed into O.C.S. годъ, time, “pleasing time", giving O.Rus. годъ, Cro. godina, Bulg. година (cf. Ukr. годi, Pol. gody, Cz. hod, Bulg. годе́, Srb. го̑д, Slov. gȏd), also adopted in Ltv. gads (cf. ‘proper’ Latvian derivatives, gadigs, gadit), from PIE base ghedh-, unite, “be associated, suitable", also with the meaning of “good”.

C.b. Another common Slavic word is Pol., Cz., Slovak rok, Ukr. рік (also, cf. Russ. с-рoк), from O.C.S. рѫка, arm, hand (cf. Russ. рука, Ukr.,Bel. рука́, Slov. róka, Pol. ręka), also found in Lith. rankà (gen. rañką), Ltv. rùoka, “hand” (cf. Russ. rаnсkо, gen. rānkan, Lith. renkù, rinkaũ, riñkti, parankà) with the year as a notion of a “cubit measurement of time”; the word is believed to be ultimately from a source akin to a nasal extended IE wrṇkā, from PIE wer-, turn, bend (maybe through O.Ind. vrag, “corner, angle”, vrangr, “scythe”).

C.c. Finally, compare Slovene leto, Russ.pl. лет, Pol. lata, Cz., Slovak. leto (cf. also Russ. лето, Pol. lato, “summer”), from PIE latom, warm season, Sla. leto, Gaul lat... (in Calendar of Coligny), Ir. laithe, “day”.

D. In Celtic, a common isolated root is found, MIE bhled-, cf. O.Ir. bladain, Ir. bliain, Sc. bliadhna, Welsh blwyddyn, Bret. bloaz, Corn. bledhen.

E. For “year” in modern Iranian languages, compare Av. sarәd, O.Pers. ýâre, Persian سال (sâl), Kurdish sal, Pashto kāl, Zazaki serre, all from PIE jēr-, already seen. Also borrowed in Hindustani as sāl (Urdu سال, Hindi साल), although some Indo-Aryan languages derive it from Skr. वर्षम् (varsham, as Marathi वर्ष, varsha, and Malayalam varsham), “year, summer, rain season”, a word which some derive from the sound of the rain, from a Dravidian source.

F. Another PIE word with a similar meaning is wet-, year, of last year, age, (cf.), which gives derivativee wetōs, year, age, old, as Lat. vetus, veteris or Gk. ἔτος, dial. wetos, Bal. wet-uš-a, Sla. vetъxъ(jь), vьtъxъ, Alb. vjet; cf. Gmc. fir-d, “last year”, (O.N. ī fjorđ, O.H.G. vërt), wétolos/m, yearling, as Lat. vitulus and Gk. ἔταλον; cf. Skr. vatsaḥ, Osc. vezkeí, O.Lith. vetušas, O.C.S. vetŭcŭ, Russ. ве́чный, Pol. wiotchy, O.Ir. fethim, Corn. guis, Alb. vjet; Hitt. witt.

I For Summer: PIE masc. Samos, summer, gives samā, year, season; compare Gmc. sumaraz (cf. O.N.,O.S. sumar, O.E. sumor, O.F. sumur, M.Du. somer, O.H.G. sumar), Skr. samā, Av. hama, Toch. ṣme/ṣmāye, Arm. amaṙ, Kurdish havîn; it is also a common Celtic word (<samo-), cf. O.Ir. samain, samuin, samfuin, Ir. Samhain, Sc. Samhradh, O.Welsh ham, Welsh haf, Bret. hañv.

I.a. For Lat. aestātis (cf. Fr. été, It. estato, Cat. estiu, also secondary Spa. estío, Pt. estio) a MIE Aistā (< *aidht(o)-tā) is reconstructed, from common PIE root aidh-, burn, illuminate; cf. Lat. aedēs, Gk. αἴθω, O.Ind. šṭakā, índdhḗ (nasalized form), Av. aēsma-, Lith. íesmė, O.Cz. niestějě, Slov. istė́je.

I.b. Another common form is derived from Wēsṛ, spring (vide infra), as Lat. veranum (tempus), “(time) of spring” (cf. Spa. verano, Pt. verão, Rom. vară), Lith., Ltv. vasara, Alb. verë.

I.d. For the common Slavic word, PIE n. Latom, cf. Russ. лето, Pol. lato, Cz. léto, Srb.-Cro. ljeto.

II. MIE has for Autumn, Fall, different Indo-European words referring to “harvest”. PIE masc. Osēn (Gen. Osnós), autumn, harvest, from older *h₃esh₃en, as in Balto-Slavic, giving O. Pruss. assanis, Rus. осень, Ukr. осінь, Pol. jesień, Srb.-Cro. jesen, Slovak jeseň, Lat. annōna, Gk. οπωρ, O.Ir. ēorna (<*esornja), Arm. ashun, and also earn, in Gmc. aznojanan (cf. Goth. asans, O.N. önn, O.E. earnian, esne, O.H.G. aran, Ger. Ernte).

II.a. Kérpistos, harvest, Gmc. *kharbistas (cf. Goth. ƕaírban, O.N. hverfa, O.S. hervist, O.E. hærfest, O.H.G. hwerban, Du. herfst, Ger. Herbst), from PIE kerp-, pluck, gather, harvest, cf. Lat. carpere, Gk. καρπος, Skr. krpana-, Toch. kārp/kärp, Lith. kerpu, O.Ir. carr, M.Ir. cerbaim, Welsh par.

II.b. Autúmnos (Lat. Autumnus, of Etruscan origin), is the common word in Romance languages and English.

II.c. In Baltic ‘autumn’ is found as Ltv. rudens, Lith. ruduo, originally “red season”, derived from PIE reudhós, red, ruddy. Compare Gmc. rauthaz (cf. Goth. rauþs, O.N. rauðr, O.E. rēad, Dan. rød, O.Fris. rad, M.Du. root, O.H.G. rōt), Lat. ruber, (Lat.dial. rufus), Osc. rufriis, Umb. rufru, Gk. ἐρυθρός; Skr. rudhira-, Av. raoidita-, Toch. rtär/ratre, O.C.S. rudru, Rus. рдеть, румяный, Pol. rumiany; Lith. raudas, Ltv. ruds, Gaul. Roudos, O.Ir. ruad, Welsh rhudd, Bret. ruz.

III. For MIE Winter: There is a common PIE masc. Ghjems (gen. ghjmós), winter; compare O.N. gói, Lat. hiems, Gk. χειμα (Mod. Gk. χειμώνας), Skr. heman, Av. zimo, Pers. زمستان (zemestān), dai, Toch. śärme/śimpriye, Arm. dzmeṙ, Old Prussian semo, Lith. žiema, Ltv. ziema, OCS zima, Russ. зима, Polish zima, Gaul. Giamillus, Ir. gaimred, Sc. Geamhradh, Welsh gaeaf, geimhreadh, Bret. goañv, Alb. dimër/dimën, Kurdish zivistan, zistan, Kamviri zẽ; Hittite gimma-. From the same root, compare ghjemrināiō, hibernate, from Lat. hibernāre, from which also (tempōs) ghjemrinom, Lat. (tempus) hibernum, “time of winter” (cf. Fr. hiver, Ita.,Pt. inverno, Spa. invierno, Rom. iarnă), or ghjemri, chimera, from Gk. χίμαιρα.

III.a. In Germanic, however, the word comes from Gmc. wentruz (cf. Goth. wintrus, O.N. vetr, O.E., O.Fris., Du. winter, O.S., O.H.G. wintar, Ger. winter, Dan., Swed. vinter), thus IE Wendrus, “watery season”, from PIE root wed-/wod-/ud-, wet, water. Compare for IE general wōdṛ and zero-grade udṛ- (or nasalized wondṛ-/undṛ-), Gmc. watar, (cf. Goth. watō, O.N. vatn,O.E. wæter, O.H.G. wazzar, O.Fris. wetir, Du. water), Lat. unda, Umb. utur, Gk. ύδωρ, Skr. udan, Toch. wär/war, Phryg. bedu, Thrac. udrēnas, Arm. get, O. Pruss. wundan, Lith. vanduo, Ltv. ūdens, O.C.S., O.Russ. вода, Pol. woda, O.Ir. uisce, Welsh gwer, Alb. ujë, Kashmiri odūr; also, Hitt. watar, and Ancient Macedonian bedu. And for alternate form udros, water, “water-creature”, otter, cf. Gmc. utraz (cf. O.N. otr, O.E. oter, O.H.G. ottar, Swed. utter, Dan. odder, Du. otter,), Lat. lutra, Gk. ὑδρος, Skr. udra, Av. udra, Lith. ūdra, O.C.S. vydra, Russ. vydra, O.Ir. uydr, odoirne Ir. odar, Osset. wyrd; also, derivative úderos, wénderos, belly, compare Ger. wanast, Lat. uterus, uenter, Skr. udara, Av. udaras, Lith. vėdaras, Ltv. vēders. As with IE “fire” (pāwṛ-egnís), Indo-European had two different roots for “water”, one inanimate, referring to an inanimate substance, and the other, apos, water (animate), referring to water as a living force (cf. Sk. apaḥ), which comes probably from an older IE II root *h₂p-, giving PIE piskos, fish, older *h₂p-isko-, cf. Gmc. fiskaz (cf. Goth. fisks, O.N. fiskr, O.E. fisc, O.H.G. fisc, Du. vis, Ger. Fisch), Lat. piscis, Russ. peskar’, Polish piskorz, O.Ir. asc, Welsh pysgodyn.

IV. For Modern Indo-European Spring: The common PIE word was Wēsṛ; compare O.N. var, Swe. vår, Lat. vēr, from which L.Lat. prima vera (cf. Spa.,Pt.,It. primavera, Rom. primăvară), Gk. έαρ, Skt. vasantah, Pers. ب (bāhār), Kur. bihar, Lith. vasara, Lith.,Ltv. pavasaris, O.C.S. vesna, Russ. весна, Pol. wiosna, Gael. Earrach, and even Turkish ilkbahar, bahar, a borrowing from Iranian.

IV.a. The spring is usually considered the first season, hence the common resource of taking words for ‘fore’ or ‘early’ followed by ‘year’, as MIE Prōjērom; cf. Dan. forår, Du. voorjaar, Ger. Frühjahr, Bul. пролет, Srb.-Cro. proljeće, Slovene pomlad, Alb. pranverë, originally lit. “fore-year”; also, Ger. Frühling, from M.H.G. vrueje, or Cz. jaro, Slovak jar, from jērom. Also, in French, the older primevère was substituted in the 16^th c. for printemps, O.Fr. prin tans, tamps prim, from Lat. tempus primum, lit. “first time, first season”, which also influenced Mid.Eng. prime-temps; cf. also Faer. maitiid. For “fore” in compounds, there is IE pṛā, before, as Gmc. fura (cf. Goth. faiura, O.N. fyrr, O.E. fore, O.Fris. fara, O.H.G. fora, Ger. vor-), Gk. πάρος, Skr. purā, Av. paro, Hittite para-, as well as IE pr, before, in front of, as Gmc. fra- (cf. Goth. fram, O.N. frā, O.E. fram, Scots fro, Ger. vor-), Ita. pro-, Gk. προ-, Ind. pra-, Slav. pra-, Celt. ro-; although Eng. “fore” itself comes from PIE per-, base of prepositions with meanings like forward, through, and other extended senses.

IV.b. Another common Germanic term is Dlṇghódeinos, as Gmc. langa-tinaz, lit. “long-day”, (cf. O.S. lentin, O.E. lencten, M.Du. lenten, O.H.G. lenzo, Eng. Lent, Du. lente, Ger. Lenz), from dlṇghós, long, as Gmc. lanngaz (cf. Goth. laggs, O.N. langr, O.E.,O.H.G. lang, M.Du. lanc), Lat. longus, Gk. δολιχός, Skr. dīrgha, Av. darəga, O.Pers. darga, Pers. derāz, O.Pruss. ilgi, Lith. ilgas, Ltv. ilgs, OCS dlŭgŭ, Russ. dolgij, Pol. długi, Gaul. Loggostalētes, O.Ir. long, Welsh dala, Alb. gjatë, Kashmiri dūr, Hitt. dalugaes; and IE deinos, a root meaning “day”, vide supra. The compound probably refers to the increasing daylight in Spring.

63. Indo-European Djēus, sky-god, sky, and Deiwos, god, (the later formed by e-insertion of zero-grade diw-), means originally shine, usually sky, heaven, hence sky god; cf. Gmc. Tīwaz (O.N. Tyr, Eng. Tiu, also in Tuesday), Lat. deus, Iovis, as in Iuppiter (from older o-grade of Djeus patér, “o father Iove” cf. O.Ind. devaḥ pitar, Gk. Zeus pater), Gk. Ζεύς, gen. Διός, Skr. devaḥ (as in Devanāgarī), O.Pers. daēva-(as in Asmodeus), O.C.S. deivai, Lith. devas. From zero-grade djous is extended djowis, Lat. Iouis, “Jupiter”, as adjective djowiliós, “descended from Jupiter”, Lat. Iūlius (name of a Roman gens), into Djowilios, July. The form deiwos, as Gmc. tīwaz, Lat. deus, gives déiwismos, deism, déiwitā, deity, deiwidhakós, deific, addéiwos, bye (“I commend you to God”, cf. Fr.,Eng.,Ger. adieu, It. addio, Spa. adiós, Pt. adeus, Cat. adeu, Nor. adjø, Swe. adjö, Gk. αντίο, Slo. adijo, Lux. äddi, Papiamento ayo, etc.), deiwinós, divine; deiwēs, rich (“fortunate, blessed, divine”), as Lat. diues; diwiós, heavenly, as in Diwianā, Diana, as Lat. Diāna, moon goddess; also djēus with the meaning of day, cf. Lat. diēs, O.Ir. die, W.Gmc. zīo, Arm. tiw, as in edjeu, today, cf. O.Ind. adyā́, adyá, Lat. hodie, O.Ir. indiu, Welsh heddyw, Hitt. anisiwat, or médhidjōus, midday, noon, which gives medhidjówonos, “of or at midday”, also meridian, and adjective, medhīdjowonós, “of or relating to a meridian, meridional” from Lat. merīdiānus, qōtidjowonós, quotidian modern derivatives include djewālís, daily, dial, djewāsiós, diary, djētā, daily routine, diet, national or local legislative assembly (alteration influenced by djē from díaitā, way of living, diet, from Gk. δίαιτα into Lat. diaeta), djousnós, diurnal, “of the day”, daily, as in djousnālís, diurnal, daily, hence as noun “breviary, journal” (as Fr. journal), and also “salary” (as Prov. jornal), djousnom, day, djóusnātā, day, day’s travel, journey, midday; doilós, clear, evident, apparent, manifest, obvious, as O.E. -tol, M.Ir. dōel, Lith. dailùs, and e-grade Hom. δέελος (*δει̯ελος), Alb. diel, as in psūghodoilikós, psychedelic, an English loan word using Greek loan words. Also, with the sense of shining, clear, day, compare Goth. sinteins, Lat. nundinum, nundinae, O.Ind. dinam, Welsh diw, Bret. deiz, Arm. tiw, Prus. deinan, Lith., Latv. diena, O.C.S. дьнь, Pol. dzien, Ukr., Rus. день, etc.

The origin of Germanic word for “God” is probably Gmc. guthan (cf. Goth. guþ, O.E. god, O.N. guð, Du. god, Ger. Gott), from zero-grade ghutóm, God, ”the Invoked”, cf. Skr. hūta-, invoked, called, an epithet of Indra, Av. zūta-, from PIE ghawō, call, invoke, compare u-stem ghutus, into O.Ir. guth m. “voice” in addition Gaul. gutuater a class of priests, probably from ghutupatēr “father (i.e. Master) of Invocations (a god)”; although some trace it to ghutom “poured, libated”, from PIE root gheu-, pour, pour a libation, compare Alb. zot, “god”, O.Ind. hōtrā, M.Pers. zōt, Av. zaoϑra, all of which apparently from PIE gheutrom; p.part. ghutós, poured in fire, sacrified,; as Gmc. giutan (cf. Goth. giutan, ON gjta, O.E. guttas, O.H.G. giozan, Ger. giessen, Eng. gut), Lat. fūtis, Gk. χειν, Skr. juhoti, Av. zaotar, Pers. zōr, Toch. ku, Phryg. Zeuman, Arm. dzulel. Originally neutral in Gmc., the gender of “God” shifted to masculine after the coming of Christianity. Following Watkins, “(...)given the Greek facts, the Germanic form may have referred in the first instance to the spirit immanent in a burial mound”, therefore O.E. god was probably closer in sense to Lat. numen, a Latin term for the power of either a deity or a spirit that informs places and objects. A better word to translate Deus might have been Æsir, Gmc. ansuz (cf. O.N. Ás, O.E. Ós), a name for the principal gods of the pantheon of Norse mythology, but it was never used to refer to the Christian God. It survives in English mainly in the personal names beginning in Os- (cf. Oswin, Oswald, Osborn, etc.). The Germanic noun is believed to be derived from PIE ansus, breath, god, related to Skr. asura and Av. ahura, with the same meaning; though in Sanskrit asura came to mean “demon”. v.i. for more on meaning shift for substituted deities in IE languages. Ansus is in turn related to ana-, breathe, v.s.

64. Prōbhastṓr comes from Lat. professor, agent noun from profitieri, from Lat. pro-, “forth”, and p.part. bhastós (<*bhat-tós), “acknowledge, admit, confess”, as Lat. fateri (pp. fassus), zero-grade from PIE roots bhā-, speak, and pro-, already seen.

65. MIE Kelomṇelis, Colonel, comes from It. colonnella, “commander of a column of soldiers at the head of a regiment”, from compagna colonella, “little column company” from IE kelomṇā, Lat. columna, “projecting object, pillar, column”, compare from o-grade kolnos, M.Ir. coll “head, guide, leader”, Lith. kálnas, Ltv. kal̂ns “mountain”, also in kolṇbhṓm, summit, end, colophon, from Gk. κολοφών; all from PIE kel-, be prominent, also hill, from which kelomṇ, top, summit, as Lat. columen, newer culmen. Other derivatives from the same root are zero-grade kḷnis, hill, as Gmc. khulniz (cf. O.N. hallr, O.E. hyll, M.Du. hill, L.Ger. hull), Lat. collis, Slav. cьlnъ (cf. Ser.-Cr. čûn, Cz. člun, Russ. čoɫn), and kḷmos, islet in a bay, meadow, as Gmc. khulmaz (cf. O.N. holmr, O.E. holm), Gallo-Roman calma, probably Pre-Celt.; extended form Lat. excellere (<ekskeldō) raise up, elevate, also “be eminent, excel”.

66. Indo-European reg- meant originally probably straight line, hence “move or direct in a straight line”, rule, guide, lead. Compare common derivatives like verb regō direct, rule, lead straight, put right, as Lat. regere, Gk. ορεγειν, Av. razeyeiti; regtós, right, straight, upright, righteous, wise, true, as Gmc. rekhtaz (cf. Goth. raihts, O.N. rettr, O.E. riht, O.H.G., O.Swed. reht, Ger. recht, Eng. right, straight), Lat. rectus, Gk. ὀρεκτός, O.Pers. rahst-, aršta-, Pers. rahst, Lith. teisus, O.Ir. recht, Welsh rhaith, Breton reiz; regmen, cf. O.Ind. rasman-, Gk. ὄρεγμα, Lat. regimen; rēgs, ruler, leader, king, as Lat. rēx, Skr. rājā, O.Ir. rī, Goth. reik; adj. rēgiós, royal, O.Ind. rājyá-, Lat. rēgius, from Celtic (cf. Gaul. -rix, O.Ir. ri, gen. rig, Gael. righ) into Gmc. rīkjaz, “rich, wealthy”, (cf. Goth. reiks, O.N. rikr, O.E. rice, O.H.G. rihhi, O.Fris. rike, Du. rijk, Ger. Reich, Eng. rich), noun rēgiom, kingdom, domain, cf. O.Ind. rājyá-, rājya-, M.Ir. rīge, Goth. reiki; modern terms include rēgālís, royal, kingly, regal; rēgolā, straight piece of wood, rod, hence “rule”, and as verb “regulate”, from Lat. rēgula and L.Lat. rēgulāre; o-grade rogā, ask (<”stretch out the hand”), from Lat. rogāre; and lengthened rōgio, from Gmc. rōkjan - rakjan (cf. O.N. rækja, O.E. reccan, O.H.G. giruochan, Ger. geruhen, Eng. reck). Derivatives include rēgtṓr, ruler, rector, director, cf. Lat. rēctor, Skr. f. rāstrī, n. rāstrá-, Av. rāstar-, etc.

67. North: from PIE root ner- below, under, also on the left, hence, “with an eastward orientation”, north, as north is to the left when one faces the rising sun, giving Nṛtos as Gmc. nurthaz (O.N. norðr, O.E. norð), borrowed into most European languages; cf. also Skt. narakah, Gk. enerthen, Osc.-Umb. nertrak.

Originally PIE had (s)kew(e)ros, cold wind, north wind, north, cf. W.Gmc. skūraz (cf. Goth. skura, O.N. skúr, O.S., O.H.G., O.E. scūr, Ger. Schauer, Eng. shower), Lat. caurus, Arm. c’urt/c’urd, Lith. šiaurus, šiaurys, šiaure, O.C.S. severu, Russ. sever.

I. Other IE derivatives for “left” are:

I.1. Indo-European laiwós, left, as Gmc. laewaz (cf. ON lǽn, O.E. lǣw. O.H.G. lēwes), Lat. laevus, Gk. laios, Illyr. Levo, Lith. išlaivoti, O.C.S. lĕvŭ, Russ. levyj, Polish lewy. English “left” is maybe also derived from the same root, through an extended laiwt-, although probably from a source meaning “weak”; cf. O.E. lyft, E.Fris. luf, Du. dial. loof, M.Du., Low Ger. luchter, luft.

Common Germanic vocabulary include Ger. link, Du. linker, from O.H.G. slinc, M.Du. slink, related to O.E. slincan “crawl”, Swe. linka “limp”, slinka “dangle”.

I.2. PIE soujós, left, was the source for Skr. savya, Av. haoya, Toch. -/saiwai, OCS šujĭ, Russ. šuj, Welsh aswy.

I.3. A reconstructed IE sen- is in the origin of Romance senesterós, left, on the left side, as Lat. sinister (opposite of dexter), meaning prop. “the slower or weaker hand” [Tucker], but Buck suggests it’s a euphemism, connected with the root of Skt. saniyan “more useful, more advantageous”.

Spa. izquierda, Gl.-Pt. esquerda, Cat. esquerra are late borrowings from Basque ezkerra.

II. Indo-European derivatives for “right”:

II.1. The opposite of ner- in PIE was probably deks-, right, hence Deksinā/Deksiós south (facing east), giving Goth. taíhswa, O.H.G. zeso, Lat. dexter, Oscan destrst, Umb. destrame, Gk. δεξιός, Skr. dakṣina, Av. dašina, Kashmiri dạchūn, Toch. täk/, Lith. dešinė, OCS desnaya; desnŭ, Russ. десница, Gaul. Dexsiva, O.Ir. dech, Welsh deheu, Alb. djathtë. Common derivatives from Latin are dekstrós, right, on the right side, hence skilful, dexter, as, as in dekstéritā, dexterity, or ambhidekstrós, ambidextrous.

II.2. The usual derivative for right (in both senses, direction and “straight, just”) in modern Romance and Germanic languages is still made from oldest regtós (cf. Eng. right, Ger., Du. recht, Da.,Nor. rett, Swe. rätt, Spa. recto, Pt. reto), ultimately from PIE reg-, although a usual Romance derivative comes from prefixed Lat. directus (cf. Fr. droit, Spa. derecho, It. diritto, Pt. direito, Rom. drept, Cat. dret), and a usual Germanic one is suffixed as Gmc. rektikhaz (cf. Ger. richtig, Da. rigtig, Nor.,Swe. riktig); also found in both, Lat. and borrowed in Gmc. is adj. komregtós, correct (as Ger.,Da. korrekt, Fr.,Du. correct, Spa. correcto, Pt. corretto).

II.3. Another usual word in Slavic languages comes from PIE verbal root bheu- (PIH bheuh₂-), be, exist, grow, (see more on bheu-), as zero-grade reduced suffixal form -bhw-, as in probhwós, “growing well or straightforward”, hence right, upright, correct, as Slavic prōvos (cf. O.Russ., O.C.S. правъ, Pol. prawy, Cz.,Slk. pravý, Sr.-Cr.,Slo. pràv), Lat. probus, O.Ind. prabhúṣ.

68. South: related to base of Gmc. sunnon, from suntṇ, sun, (swen-/sun- are alternate nasalized roots for PIE sāwel) with the sense of “the region of the sun”, Ger. Süd, Süden are from a Du. pronunciation. O.Fr. sur, sud (Fr. sud), Sp. sur, sud- are loan words from Gmc., perhaps from O.N. suðr. Compare Gmc. sawel/sunnon (Goth. sauil, sunno, O.N. sól, sunna, O.Eng. sigel, sunne, O.H.G. sunna) Lat. sōl, Gk. ήλιος, Skr. sūras, Av. hvarə, Pers. -farnah-, Kamviri su, Toch. swāñce/swāñco, Alb. (h)yll, O. Pruss. saule, Lith. saulė, O.C.S. slunice, O.Russ. сълньце, Pol. słońce, Welsh haul, O.Ir. súil.

69. The East is the direction in which the Sun breaks, from PIE aus-, dawn; cf. Gmc. austo/austraz (O.N. austr, O.E. ēast, O.H.G. ōstra, Du. oost, Ger. Osten), Lat. aurōra, auster, Gk. αυριον (aurion), ηως (ēōs), Skr. uṣās, Av. ušastara, Lith. aušra, Ltv. ausma, Russ. утро, O.Ir. usah, fáir, Welsh gwawr. For Modern Indo-European we will use generally Austos as Gmc. East, and Austrós as Gmc. Eastern (austraz) and for Lat. auster; as, Austrorēgiom, Austria (cf. Gmc. austro+rikjan, Ger. Oesterreich), Australiā (from Lat. Terra Australis, MIE Austr(lís) Térsā, Southern Land), etc.

70. West: Pie root wes- is root for words meaning evening, west, as wést(e)ros, west, Gmc. westraz (cf. O.N. vestr, Du. west, Ger. West), wespros, evening, Gk. έσπερος (^hesperos), Lat. vesper, wéskeros O.C.S. večeru, Lith. vakaras, Welsh ucher, O.Ir. fescor, perhaps an enlarged form of PIE base we-, to go down (cf. Skt. avah), and thus lit. “direction in which the sun sets”.

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71. Lat. platea: courtyard, open space, broad street, comes from Gk. plateia (hodos), broad (way), fem. of pltús, broad, Gk. πλατυς, from PIE stem plat-, spread out, broad, flat. Cf. Gmc. flataz; Lat. planta; Skt. prathati, Gk. pelanos, Hitt. palhi; Lith. platus, plonas; O.Ir. lethan. Related to plāk-, to be flat; cf. Gmc. flakaz (Eng. flake), Lat. plācāre, Gk. plax. Both extended forms of PIE base pĺā- (from pel-), flat, spread; cf. Gmc. felthuz (Eng. field), Lat. plānus, Gk. plassein, Sla. polje, etc.

IE plat is an extension of PIE root pel-, flat, and spread. Compare péltus, flat land, field, as Gmc. felthuz (cf. O.Fris. feld, O.E. feld, M.H.G. velt, Ger. Feld, Eng. field, even Finnish pelto, “field”, from Proto-Germanic), plrus, floor, ground, as Gmc. flōruz (cf. O.N., O.E. flor, M.H.G. vluor, M.Du. vloer, Ger. Flur, Eng. floor) or Welsh llawr, plānós, flat, level, even, plain, clear, from Lat. plānus; pĺmā, palm, as Lat. palma; plānḗtā, “wandering”, planet, as Gk. πλανήτης, from plānā, wander (<”spread out”), from Gk. πλανασθαι; also zero-grade pladhio, mold, “spread out”, as Gk. πλασσειν (plassein), hence plastikós (<*pladhtiko-), pládhmā, -pladhia, plastós(<*pladhto-), etc. In Slavic there are o-grade polís, open, and pólā, broad flat land, field.

The old territory of the tribe of Polans (Polanie), MIE Polános, had a name which became that of the Polish state in the 10^th century. MIE Póliskā, Pol. Polska (Eng. Poland, “land of the Poles”), expressed both meanings, and comes from IE adjectival suffix -isko-, as in poliskós, polish, Póliskos, Pole, f. Polisk dńghūs or n. Póliskom, polish language. The name of the tribe comes from a PIE source akin to Polish pole, “field, open field”), from IE pólā.

72. PIE wer, speak, is the source of zero-grade wŕdhom, word, as Gmc. wurdan (cf. Goth. waurd, O.N. orð, O.S., O.E., O.Fris. word, Du. woord, O.H.G. wort), full-grade wérdhom, verb, from Lat. verbum (originally “word”), as in adwérdhiom, adverb, and prōwérdhiom, proverb, prāiwérdhiom, preverb; wério, say, speak, as Gk. ειρειν, from which werioneíā, irony, as Gk. εἰρωνεία; wrētṓr, public speaker, rhetor, as Gk. ῥήτωρ, from which wrētṓrikā, rhetoric, as Gk. ῥητορική, or wrḗmn, word, rheme, as Gk. ῥημα; compare also, with the sense of speak, command, agree, call, summon, lie, etc., Umb. uerfalem, Skr. vrata-, Av. urvāta, Old Prussian wīrds, Lith. vardas, Ltv. vārds, OCS vračĭ, Russ. врать, O.Ir. fordat, Hitt. ueriga.

73. Indo-European ékwos, ékwā, and kŕsos, have also another synonym in Celtic and Germanic – maybe a borrowing from Gaulish –, márkiā, mare, as Gaul. markan, O.Ir. marc, Welsh march, Bret. marh, and Gmc. markhjon, cf. O.N. marr, O.E. mearh, also fem. O.S. meriha, O.N. merr, O.E. mere/myre, O.Fris. merrie, O.H.G. marah, Eng. mare, Ger. Mähre.

74. PIE root bak, used for “staff”, is the source for bákolom, rod, walking stick, as Lat. baculum, and diminutive bákillom, staff, bacillum, and possibly nbakillós, imbecile, weak, feeble. Also, for báktrom, rod, from Gk. βάκτρον, and its diminutive baktḗriom, bacterium, little rod, for Gk. βακτηριον. French loan words débâcle (MIE debákolā) and baguette (from It. bacchetta, from bacchio, in turn from Lat. baculum) are also modern derivatives. Compare also Lith. bakstelėti, Ltv. bakstīt, O.Ir. bacc, Welsh bach.

75. For Indo-European bhel, light, bright, also gleam, compare Gmc. blaik- (cf. Goth. bala, O.N. bāl, blár, bleikr, O.E. blæcern, blǣcan, blǣwen, O.H.G. blecken, bleich, blāo), Lat. flagrāre; flāvus, Oscan Flagiúi; Flaviies, Gk. φλεγειν; φαλος, Skr. bharga; bhālam, Phryg. falos, Toch. pälk/pälk, Illyr. balta, Thrac. balios, Arm. bal, O.Pruss. ballo, Lith. blagnytis, baltas, Ltv. balts, Russ. belyj, Polish biały, Gaul. Belenos, Ir. beltene, blár, Welsh bal, blawr, Alb. ballë. Thus e.g. Modern Indo-European Bhaltikós, Baltic, Bhelārús, Belarus, “White Ruthenia”, and possibly Bhélgiā/Bhélgikā, from the Celtic tribe of the Bhélgās, Belgae for the Romans.

76. IE téuta means originally people, tribe; as Gmc. theudo (cf. Goth. þiuda, O.N. þjóð, O.E. þeoð, O.H.G. diutisc, M.Du. duitsch, Eng. Dutch, Ger. Deutsch, Ice. Þýska , L.Lat. theodice, It. tedesco), Osc. touto, Umb. totam, Illyr. teuta, O.Prus. tauto, Lith. tauta, Ltv. tauta, Gaul. teuto, O.Ir. tath; Hitt. tuzzi. Lyc. tuta. Today the Germanic adjective equivalent to MIE Teutiskós is mainly used to describe Germans (also in a wider sense of German-speaking people) and Germany (cf. Dan., Nor, Swe. tysk, Du. Duits, Ice. Þýskur, Lat. theodisco, It. tedesco, Rum. tudestg, even Chinese dǔ, Japanese doitsu, Korean dogeo, or Vietnamese Ðức), hence Téutiskom, German language, Teutiskoléndhom, Germany, from O.H.G. Diutisklant, Ger. Deutschland.

Finnish and Estonian derivatives are from loan word saksa, MIE Sáksōn, from L.Lat. Saxō, Saxonēs, in turn from West Germanic tribal name Saxon, traditionally regarded as from sóksom, Germanic sakhsam, “knife”, (cf. O.E. Seaxe, O.H.G. Sahsun, Ger. Sachse), therefore ‘Saxon’ could have meant lit. “warrior with knifes”, “swordsmen”, related to sókā, cutting tool, saw, as Gmc. sagō (cf. O.E. seax, secg, O.N. sõg, Norw. sag, Dan. sav, M.Du. saghe, Du. zaag, O.H.G. saga, Ger. Säge), from PIE root sek, cut. Athematic sekā, as Lat. secāre, gives common derivatives like séktiōn, section, sekméntom, segment, enséktom, insect, sektṓr, sector, dissekā, dissect, etc. Other derivatives include skend, peel of, flay, and skends, skin, as Gmc. skinths (cf. O.N. skinn, O.H.G. scinten, Ger. schinden, Flem. schinde); sáksom, stone (maybe from “broken-off piece”), from Lat. saxum; sékitā, sickle, scythe, as Gmc. segithō (cf. O.S. segasna, O.E. sigði, M.L.G. segede, M.Du. sichte, O.H.G. segensa, Ger. Sense). Compare also Lat. sасēnа, Slavic sěkǫ, sěkti (cf. O.C.S. сѣкѫ, сѣшти, O.Rus. сѣку, сѣчи, Pol. siес, siecę, Srb.-Cro. sijecem, sijehi), O.Lith. į̀sekti, išsekt, O.Ir. doescim, Ir. ésgid, Bret. scant, Alb. shat.

77. Adjective entergn̅tís comes from enter+gn̅tis⁴¹ and is a usual modern loan word (from Lat. terms inter+natio) in Romance and Germanic languages, as well as in Celtic and South Slavic. In some Slavic modern languages, even though the same Latin borrowings exist (cf. Russ. нация, интернационал-, Pol. nacja, internacjonal-, etc.), the usual compound is made by medhjonorodhós (cf. Russ. между+народный, Pol. między+narodowy, etc.) from PIE médhjos, middle, and nórodhs, nation.

Indo-European énter, between, among, gave Lat. inter, and is found in common loan words enteriós, interior, enternós, intern, and enternālís, internal. Also, compare other similar derivatives like ént(e)ro, as in éntrō, inward, within, from Lat. intrō, as in entroduko, introduce, entrospeko, “look inside”, introspect (see spek); or éntrā, inside, within, from Lat. intrā, as in verb entrā, enter, or suffix entra-, intra-; also found in énterim, (with ablative suffix -im), entrīnseqós (from énterim and séqos, alongside), and entmós, innermost, intime, and its verb entmā, intimate, with -mo- being a superlative suffix. Similar IE words include entós, within, from Gk. εντός, énterom, intestine, enteron, from Gk. ἔντερον, and Skr. antara-.

The previous derivatives are ultimately derived from PIE root en, in, which gives Gmc. in(nan) (cf. Goth. in, O.N., O.Swe. i, O.E. inn, inne, O.Fris, O.H.G. M.Du., Eng. in), Lat. in, Gk. εν, Skr. an-, O.Pruss. en, Lith. į, Ltv. iekšā, O.C.S. on-, O.Ir. in, Welsh yn-, Luw. anda.

Other common derivatives include enerós, inner, further in, from Gmc. comparative innera; Gk. and Lat. endós, inner, within, which gives endostruós, diligent, industrious, from Lat. industrius (O.Lat. indostruus), thus éndostruā, industry, and Lat. loan word endogénts, indigent. Extended ens, into, as Gk. εις (eis), which gives epensódiom, episode, from IE epi and ensódios, entering, from Gk. εισόδιος (eisodios). Further suffixed ensō, within, gives ensoterikós, esoteric, and ensotropikós, esotropic, from Greek ἐσω.

B. Common IE words for people, race, men, nation, apart from téuta, génos, man, wīros:

B.1. For Balto-Slavic rodhs, kind, sort, genre, family, clan, and nórodhs, people, nation – look at the parallelism with génōs and gnátiōn –, compare Lith. rasmė, Ltv. rads, rasma, rаžа (from older rádhiā), O.C.S.,O.Russ. родъ, Russ. род, народ, Pol. ród, naród, etc. It is deemed to be o-grade form of PIE redh, rise out, extend forth, an Indo-European base akin to PIE verb wrōdh, grow up, and also high, steep; compare Skr. várdhati, Av. varait, Alb. rit, and (doubtfully) Arm. ordi, “son”, Lat. arbor, “tree” (possibly but unlikely PIE *wrdhōr, maybe better MIE Lat. loan árbōr), Hitt. hardu. A common derivative is zero-grade suffixed wrdhuós, straight, with MIE comp. elem. wrdho-, as Gk. ὀρθο-, Eng. ortho-.

Compare also wrād, root, branch, as Gmc. wrōt- (cf. O.N. rōt-), wrdīks, root, as Lat. rādīx; and zero-grade derivatives wŕdis, as Gmc. wurtiz (cf. O.E. wyrt, O.H.G. wurz), wŕdjā, wort, root, as Gmc. wurtjō (cf. O.E. wyrt), Gk. rhiza; or zero-grade suffixed wrádmos, branch, as Lat. rāmus.

A common Indo-European preposition is reconstructed as PIE an, on, as Lat. in- (in some cases, and also an-), Gk. ἀνά, ἄνω, Av. ana, also on, up, upon, as Gmc. ana, anō (cf. Goth. ana, O.N. á, O.E. an, on, a, O.H.G. ana, Du. aan), and variant Balto-Slavic form no, as Slavic na (cf. O.C.S. на, Ukr.,Bul.,Russ. на, Cz.,Pol. na), O.Pruss. nо, nа, Lith. nuõ, Ltv. nùо.

B.2. Tucker suggests from the same PIE base redh a common Romance rádhios, staff, spoke of a wheel, beam of light, as Lat. radius, which gives rádhiā, race, from L.Lat. radia into It. razza, Fr., Eng. race, Spa. raza, Pt. raça. In any case, whether originally related or not, both words are written this way in Modern Indo-European.

B.3. A common Germanic word is pĺgom, people, men, from Gmc. folkam (cf. O.N. folk, O.E. folc, O.Fris. folk, M.Du. volc, Ger. Volk), which is usually compared with Lith. pulkas, O.C.S. pluku, both believed to have been borrowed from Proto-Germanic. It is related to plḗdhūs, people, multitude, as Lat. plēbs, plēbēs, and plédhuos, multitude, as Gk. πλήθος, all from PIE root pel, fill, be full. Other derivatives include plnós, full, as Gmc. fulnaz, fullaz (cf. Goth. fulls, O.N. fullr, O.E. full, O.Fris. ful, O.H.G. fol, Ger. voll); pĺio, fill, as Gmc. fulljan (cf. O.S. fulljan, O.N. fylla, O.E. fyllan, O.Fris. fella, Du. vullen, Ger. füllen ); lengthened plē, fill, and plēnós, filled, full; plaús, plus, from Lat. plūs (earlier O.Lat. plous); o-grade polús, much, many, from Gk. πολύς; verb plēdhuo, be full, as in plḗdhuōrā, plethora, from Gk. πληθώρα; adjective plērós, full, as Gk πληρης; plēiōn, more, as Gk. πλεῖον; or pleistós (superlative), most, as Gk. πλεῖστος.

B.4. Latin populus, “people”, is usually seen as a borrowing from Etruscan. It is, however, reconstructed today as from qel-²⁴, hence qeqlos, v.s.

B.5. Indo-European lúdhis, people, is found in Gmc. liudi (cf. Goth. liudan, O.N. ljlēod, O.H.G. liut, Ger. Leute, also found in Ger. Lette, Eng. Lett, mediaeval noun for Latvian), Osc. Lúvfreís, O. Pruss. ludis, Lith. liaudis, Ltv. ļaudis, OCS ljudĭje, Russ. люди, Pol. lud, O.Ir. luss, Welsh llysiau, Alb. lind. It comes from PIE verb léudh, mount up, grow – compare the parallelism with genōs/gnatiōn, wrōdh/redh –, as Skr. rodhati, Av. raodha. Also, leudherós, free, maybe originally “belonging to the people, public” (although the semantic development is obscure), as in Lat. līber, Gk. ελευθερος, and common derivatives like leudherālís, liberal, leudherā, liberate, léudhertā, liberty, deleudherā, deliver, etc.

B.6. Another PIE common root is kei, lie, bed, couch, beloved, dear; as kéiuom, members of a household, hind, O.E. hīwan; kéiuidhā, measure of land, household, hide, O.E. hīgid, hīd; kéiuis, citizen, member of a household, Lat. cīuis, as in keiuikós, civic, keiuilís, civil, or kéiuitā, city; kéilijos, companion, as Eng. ceilidh, from O.Ir. céle; koin, cradle, from Lat. cunae; koimā, put to sleep, and also kóimā, village, as in Gk. κοιμη-, κώμη, and common borrowing koimātḗriom, cemetery, from Lat. coemeterium, itself from Gk. κοιμητήριον; zero-grade kiuós, auspicious, dear, as in Skr. śiva-; kéims, person, servant, and kéimiā, household, domestic servants, family, as O.C.S. сѣмь, сѣмиıа, O.Russ. сѣмиıа, сѣмьца, Ukr. сiм᾽я, Bulg. семейство, O.Pruss. seimīns, Lith. šeimà, šeimýna, Ltv. sàimе. Also, compare Lith. kaimas, “village”.

It gives secondary root (t)kei (from ad+kei), settle, dwell, be home, as in (t)kóimos, home, residence, village, from Gmc. khaimaz (cf. Goth. haims, O.N. heimr, O.E. hām, O.Fris. hem, M.Du hame, O.H.G. heim), which gives koimghórdhos, shelter, hangar, from Gmc. haimgardaz into O.Fr. hangard; tkiso, found, settle, metathesized form from Gk. κτίζειν; also possibly Italic suffixed sítus (from older metathesized *ktítus), location, situs, and situā, situate, locate; compare from metathesized tkitis, Gk. ktisis, Skr. kṣiti, Av. šiti.

B.7. Common PIE wel, crowd, throng, is reconstructed for MIE wólgos, common people, multitude, crowd, as in Lat. uulgus, and adjective wolgālís, “of or pertaining to the common people, common, everyday, ordinary”, then extended with time as pejorative vulgar; cf. Skr. vargaḥ, “division, group”, and also Gk. ειλειν, M.Bret. gwal’ch, Welsh gwala.

B.8. Another MIE common loan translation is swédhnos, band of people living together, nation, people, from Gk. ἔθνος (ethnos), lit. “people of one’s own kind” from PIE reflexive s(w)e-. Compare also derivatives swedhnikós, ethnic, swédhniā, ethnia, race.

B.9. Latin persónā, person, (from Etruscan phersu, “mask”, and this from Gk. πρόσωπον), and famíliā, family, household, from Lat. fámolos, “servant”, (compare parallelism with Balto-Slavic pair keims/kéimiā), both of uncertain etymology, are left as loan words in Modern Indo-European.

78. MIE rḗgios, king, rḗgi, queen, are Germanic loans from Celtic, in turn derived from PIE lengthened base rēg, a common Indo-European word for the tribal king. The correct Latin loan-translations are rēgs, king, rḗgīnā, queen (possibly suffixed earlier rḗgī-), while those from Sanskrit are rḗgēn, raja, rḗgenis, rani; Indo-European rḗgiom is the Celtic source for Germanic words meaning realm, kingdom, empire, as Gmc. rikjam (cf. O.N. rīki, O.E. rīce, O.H.G. rihhi, Ger. Reich).

English “queen”, from O.E. cwen, “queen, female ruler”, also “woman, wife” comes from Gmc. kweniz, ablaut variant of kwenō (source of Mod.Eng. quean), from PIE cénā, “woman, wife”, vide infra. Indo-European languages have usually the same words for King and Queen, using the feminine marker when necessary. English, however, had a meaning (and phonetic) shift that could be used in Modern Indo-European – as with “Chancellor” instead of “Prime Minister” for Germany and Austria – to remember this peculiarity of the English language, hence Cénis between parenthesis.

79. For wros, man, freeman, as in Eng. were-wolf. Compare Gmc. weraz (cf. Goth. wair, O.E. wer, O.N. verr), Lat. uir, Umb. viru, Skr vīra, Av. vīra, Toch. wir, O.Pruss. wirs, Lith. vyras, Ltv. vīrs, Gaul. uiro-, O.Ir. fer, Wel. gwr. Usual derivatives are wīrīlís, virile, wrtūts, manliness, excellence, goodness, virtue, wīrtuónts(ós), virtuous, skilled, of great worth, virtuoso, dekmwrōs, decemvir (commission of ten men), or komwriā, “men together”, curia, court. It is found in compound wirwĺqos (from shortened wíros), werewolf, as Gmc. wer-wulfaz (cf. O.E. werewulf, O.H.G. werwolf, M.Du. weerwolf, Swed. varulf, and also Frank. wer-wulf into O.Fr. garoul, then leu-garoul, from Lat. lupus, itself from wĺqos, hence Eng. loup-garou, lit. “wolf-werewolf”), and wíralts, world, v.i.

Common IE words for man, male, apart from mánus:

I. The common Romance word comes from Lat. homō (cf. Fr. homme, It. uomo, Spa. hombre, Pt. homem, Cat. home), in turn from IE dhghómōn, man, “earthling”, human being, (cf. Arm. տղամարդ, dghamard, “man”), which gives derivatives dhghomonidós, hominid, dim. dhghomonkolós, homuncule, dhghomokdiom, homicide, dhghomontiōn, homage (from Oc. homenatge), closely related with dhghōmnos, human, kind, humane, both related with MIE dhghómos, earth, ground, soil, as Lat. humus, (cf. Osc. huntruis, Umb. hondomu) which gives common derivatives as dhghomilís, low, lower, humble, and dhghomílitā, humility, dhghomiliā, humiliate, eksdhghomā, exhume, endhghomā, inhume, transdhghomā, move livestock seasonally, as in Eng. transhumance. They all come from PIE root dhghem, earth, (as in Pers. zamīn, Kashmiri zamin), which gives common IE dhghōm [g^ho:m] (gen. dhghmós [g^hm̥-’os]), earth, and other derivatives as (dh)ghḿōn [‘g^hm̥-on], man, “earthling”, in Gmc. gumōn (cf. Goth. guma, O.N. gumi, O.E. guma, O.H.G. gomo, found in Eng. bridegroom, Ger. Bräutigam; Mod. Eng. groom was altered 16^th c. by folk etymology after groom “boy, lad”, itself from a source akin to verb grow); metathesized in Greek as ghdhōm, Gk. χθών, as in autodhghṓm, autochthon; zero-grade dhghm [g^hm̥], on the ground, as Gk. χαμαι, as in dhghmléōn, chameleon (“ground-lion”, lizard, léōn is from Semitic origin adopted in Greek and Latin), dhghmmḗlōn, chamomile (“ground-melon”, from Lat. loan word mḗlōn, melon, short for Gk. mēlo-peppōn, “apple-gourd”); the common Balto-Slavic words come from IE dhghémiā, land, earth, as O.Pruss. same, Lith. žemė, Ltv. zeme, O.Russ. zemi, Pol. ziemia, Cz. země, also found as zemlja, in O.C.S., Russ., Srb.-Cro., etc. Other common IE derivatives are Skr. kṣa, Phryg. zemelo; zamelon, Thrac. semele; semela, Toch. tkam/keṃ, O.Ir. du, Welsh dyn, Alb. dhè, Osset. zæxx; Hitt. tekan, Luw. dakam-,

I.1. Common words for earth, land, apart from dhghōm, polā, and léndhom:

I.1.a. Germanic “world” comes from wíralts, “life or age of man”, as Gmc. wirald- (cf. O.N. verold, O.S. werold, O.E. woruld, worold, O.Fris. warld, O.H.G. weralt, Du. wereld, Ger. Welt, Sca. jord), a compound of wīros, man, (cf. Hebrew adam, “man”, and adamah, “earth” and the opposite with Lat. homō, “earthling”, already seen), and altós, grown up, hence old, adult, and tall, high, deep, as Gmc. althaz (cf. (cf. Goth. alþeis, O.E. eald, O.Fris. ald, Du. oud, Ger. alt), Lat. altos, as in eksaltā, exalt, or altitū́dōn, altitude.

Adjective altós comes from PIE root al, grow, nourish, found in almós, nurturing, nourishing (as in alm mātḗr, “nourishing mother”, university); Latin verb alo, nourish, from which pres.part. alomnós, being nourished (from which álomnos, fosterling, step-child, alumnus, student), alobhilís, alible, aloméntom, aliment, as well as suffixed compound adalesko, grow up, as in adaleskénts, adolescent, or part. adaltós, grown up, adult; suffixed causative compound apaleio, retard the growth of, abolish; compound prṓlēs (from pro-alēs), offspring; and extended aldho, get well, as in Gk. ἀλθαία.

The proper IE word for old is senós, cf. Goth. sineigs, ON sina, Lat. senex, Gk. henos, Skr. sana, Av. hana, Arm. hin, Lith. senas, Ltv. sens, Gaul. Senognatus, O.Ir. sen, Welsh hyn. It is found (from Lat. senex, MIE sénēks, an elder), in sentus, senate, senilís, senile, seniós, older, as in Latin sénios, senior, señor, signore, sir, sire, senḗktūts, senectitude, etc. A common fem. sénā is attested as Gk. hénē, Skr. śanā-, Lith. senà, Lyc. lada.

I.1.b. Romance terra, “earth, Earth”, comes from PIE térsā, “dry land”, in derivatives like tersnos, terrain, suptersaniós, subterranean, tersaqiós (from térsa+áqa), terraqueous, etc. PIE ters, dry, which gives tŕstus, dryness, thirst, Gmc. thurstuz (cf. O.E. thurst), trskós, dried, as Gmc. thurskaz (cf. O.N. thorskr, O.E. cusk); torsē, dry, parch, burn, as Lat. torrēre, also as loan word in torsénts, torrent, or torsidós, torrid, p.part. torstós, burnt, into torstā, toast, and noun torstátā; zero-grade tŕsos, tarsos, frame of wickerwork (originally for drying cheese), hence a flat surface, sole of the foot, ankle, Gk. ταρσός.

I.1.c. English “earth” comes from Gmc. erthō (cf. Goth. airþa, O.N. jörð, O.E. eorðe, M.Du. eerde, O.H.G. erda), hence MIE ertā, “ground, soil, dry land”, also used for the “physical world” (as opposed to the heavens or the underworld), from PIE root er-.

I.1.d. Latin mundus, “universe, world”, lit. “clean, elegant” is from unknown origin, hence loan wod MIE móndos, which gives mondānós, mundane, “belonging to the world”, (as distinct from the Church), used as a translation of Gk. κόσμος (MIE loan word kósmos) in its Pythagorean sense of “the physical universe” (the original sense of the Gk. word was “order, orderly arrangement”). L. mundus also was used of a woman’s “ornaments, dress”, and is related to the adj. mondós, clean, elegant.

Proto-Indo-European had a common root wes, for dress, clothe, compare Gmc. wazjan (cf. Goth. gawasjan, O.N. verja, O.E. werian, O.H.G. werian, Eng. wear, Ger. Wehr), Lat. uestire, Gk. hennynai, Skr. vaste, Av. vastē, Toch. wäs/wäs, Arm. zgenum/zkenum, Welsh gwisgo, Bret. gwiska, Alb. vesh; Hittite waš-. Common Latin derivatives are wéstis, garment, in dewestio, devest, enwestio, invest, transwestio.

I.1.e. Greek gē, earth, possibly from IE gā, (cf. Gk. m.γῆ, f. γαῖα) is also from unknown origin, and is left so in derivatives, as geō- (maybe IE gaio-?); compared with Summerian Goddess Ki-, also meaning “Earth”.

I.1.f. English “ground” comes from Gmc. grunduz (cf. O.N. grunn, O.E. grund, O.Fris. grund, Du. grond, Ger. Grund), of unknown origin, MIE grúndus, foundation, ground, surface of the earth, originally deep place, bottom, bottom of the sea.

I.2. English “bride” comes from Gmc. bruthiz (cf. Goth. bruþs, O.E. bryd, O.Fris. breid, Du. bruid, O.H.G. brut, and from this into Mid.Lat. bruta, and from this into O.Fr. bruy), possibly originally daughter-in-law, later also “woman being married”, bride. In ancient IE custom, the married woman went to live with her husband’s family, so the only "newly-wed female" in such a household would be the daughter-in-law. Reconstructed as MIE bhrútis, it is probably derived as zero-grade from PIE verb bhrew, boil, bubble, effervesce, burn, with derivatives referring to cooking and brewing, as bhrútom, broth, from Gmc. brutham (cf. O.E. broþ, V.Lat. brodum). Other derivatives include extended bhréuwo, brew, as Gmc. breuwan (cf. O.N. brugga, O.E. breowan, O.Fris. briuwa, M.Du. brouwen); bhréutom, cooked food, leavened bread, as Gmc. brautham (O.E. brēad, O.N. brot, Dan. brød, Ger. Brot); variant lengthened bhrēto, warm, giving o-grade denominative bhrōt, “a warming”, hatching, rearing of young, brood, as Gmc. brōdō, and verb bhrōtio, rear young, breed, as Gmc. brōdjan, roast flesh, or bhrḗtōn, roast flesh, as Gmc. brēdōn (cf. O.H.G. brāto, O.Fr. braon); bhrésā, burning coal, ember, hence (from O.Fr. brese) braise, breeze, braze; bhérmōn, yeast, as Gmc. bermōn (cf. O.E. beorma, M.L.G. barm, Du. berm), or further suffixed bherméntom, yeast, ferment, as Lat. fermentum; extended bherwē, be boiling or fermenting, as Lat. feruēre, as in bherwénts, fervent, bherwṓr, fervor, eghbherwesko, effervesce, etc.; and, as very archaic words for spring, compare bhrúnōn, as Gmc. brunnon, and suffixed bhrḗwr, as Gk. φρέαρ, as in bhrewtikós, phreatic. From an original PIE root bher- are also Skr. bhurati, Gk. phurdēn-migdēn, Gaul. Voberā, O.Ir. bréo, M.Ir. berbaim, Welsh beru, Alb. burmë, and also probably lengthened bhrē, smell, breathe, from which bhrḗtos, odor, exhalation, breath, as Gmc. brēthaz (cf. ON bráðr, O.E. brǣþ, O.H.G. brādam, Ger. Brodem).

II. A form almost restricted to West Germanic is koirós, gray, hence “gray-haired”, venerable, old, as Gmc. khairaz (cf. O.E. hār, O.H.G. her, comp. herro, “noble”, Ger. Herr, Du. heer, MIE kóireros), from PIE koi, shine.

III. A Greek form comes from IE *h₂ner, man, with basic sense of vigorous, vital, strong, as in nēr, Gk. ἀνήρ (anēr), and zero-grade in compounds as nro-, andro-, -nros, -androus, “having men”, -nriā, -andry, etc.

IV. Hindustani ādmī (Hindi: आदमी , Urdu آدمی ), from Persian آدم itself from Arabic آدَم , also found in Turkish adam, cf. אדם (adam), which is the origin of the Biblical name Adam.

V. A curious form is Romanian bărbat (MIE bhardhátos), “bearded”, from Lat. barba, from Italic farba (cf. Celtic barfa, as in Welsh barf), a metathesized form of PIE bhárdhā, beard, attested in European dialects. Compare Gmc. bardō (also “hatchet, broadax”, cf. O.H.G. barta, as in halmbarta, into M.Fr. hallebarde, Eng. halberd), O.Pruss. bordus, Lith. barzdà, Ltv. barzda, bā́rda, O.C.S. брада, Russ. борода, Polish broda. English “beard” comes from bhárdhos, Gmc. bardaz (cf. Goth. bars, O.N. barðr, O.E. beard, M.Du. baert, O.H.G. bart),

80. Dwenós, good (< “useful, efficient, working”), as Lat. bonus, comes from PIE dew, do, perform, show favor; also, compound dwenignós, benign (from PIE gen), or adverbial form dwénē, well, as in dwenēdéiktiōn, benediction, dwenēdhaktṓr, benefactor, etc.; diminutive dwenelós, handsome, pretty, fine, as Lat. bellus; dwēio, make blessed, as Lat. beāre, in dwēiatós, blessed, dwēiatidhakā, betify, etc.; also possibly but unlikely related to dunamikós, dynamic (from dúnamis, Gk. δύναμις, force). The Germanic word for good is gōdaz (cf. O.Eng. gōd, O.N. gōðr, Du. goed, O.Ger. guot, gigat, Goth. gōþs, gadilings, Ger. gut, gätlich), from Modern Indo-European ghōdhós, which comes from PIE root ghedh, to unite, join, fit. Compare Skr. gadhjas, Lith. guõdas, Ltv. gads, gùods, Alb. ngeh, ngae, O.C.S. godŭ, Russ годъ, Polish gody, Toch. kātk/kātk.

81. Áutom, auto, is a diminutive of automóghwibhili, automobile, from Gk αὐτο- self, one’s own, (in turn from αὐτος, self, same, from IE au) and PIE meghw, move, in moghwē, cf. Lat. mouēre (cf. also Lat. uoueō <*woghw-ējō), Hitt. mugawar; it is usually reconstructed as from PIE mew, move, as PIE zero-grade noun motós, moved, movement, (cf. Lat. motus, Gk. ameusasthai, amuno, Skt. -muta, mivati, Lith. mauti, etc.). The words kŕsos (or kárros) and kŕsom (or kárrom), from Celtic and Latin (in turn from PIE kers, run) cognate with Modern English car, mean in Modern Indo-European charriot, cart, wagon, originally “wheeled vehicle”.

For PIE kers, compare zero-grade krso, run, as Lat. currere, giving modern derivatives as kŕsos, course, krsénts, current, krsṓr, cursor, komkrso, concur, komkŕsos, concurso, diskrso, think up, diskŕsos, discourse, ekskŕsiōn, excursion, enkrso, incur, enterkrso, mingle with, enterkŕsos, a running between, interposition, obhkrso, occur, rekrso, recur, etc.; kŕsos, or as loan word kárros, two-wheeled wagon, giving derivatives as krsáriā, career, krsikā, carry, charge, diskrsikā, discharge, krsikatósā (or karikatúrā, from Italian), etc., and krspéntom, two-wheeled carriage, from which krspentsios, carpenter. See also a possible Germanic cognate kŕsos, horse.

82. PIE per is the root for particles and words meaning “forward, through”, and a wide range of extended senses such as “in front of, before, early, first, chief, toward, against, near, at, around”. Derivatives include péri, Gmc. fer-, far- (cf. Eng. for-, Du.,Ger. ver-), which is used as intensive prefix denoting destruction, reversal or completion; its superlative is per(e)ro, farther away, far, as Gmc. fer(e)ra (cf. O.N. fjarre, O.E. feorr, Du. ver, Ger. fern); per, per-, through, for, as Lat. per; péri, around, near, beyond, over, as Gk. περι, Skr. pari, O.Iran. pari; per-, around, again, as Slavic per-. Also, zero-grade pr, before, in, Gmc. fur, as Eng. for; prt, forward, as Gmc. furth, Eng. forth; pŕtero, farther away, Gmc. furthera, Eng. further; pr, por, forth, forward, as Lat. por-; pŕsōd, forward, parget, as Lat. porrō; prmós, Gmc. fruma/furma, Eng. former; prmistós, foremost, Gmc. frumista/furmista; pristós, first, foremost, Gmc. furista; prówariā, “forward part of a ship”, prow, from Gk. πρώρα; prowtós, first, foremost, as Gk. πρωτο; pŕa, before, fore, as Gmc. fura; pára, beside, alongside of, beyond, as Gk. παρα; prō, forward, away from, as Gmc. fra; prómo, from, as Gmc. fram; prṓwā, lady, Gmc. frōwō, from prówom, lord, Gmc. frawan; prōwós, true, as Slavic pravu; pro, before, for, instead, as Lat. pro; pronos, leaning, forward, as Lat. pronus; proqe, near, as Lat. prope; proqinqós, near, as Lat. propinquus; proq(i)smós, nearest, as Lat. proximus, as in verb adproqsmā, approximate; probhwós (bhw-o-, grow, from PIE root bhew), growing well or straightforward, upright, good, virtuous, as Lat. probus; pro, before, forth, in front, forward, as Gk. προ, Skr. pra-; proteros, before, former, as Gk. προτερος; (p)ro, intensive prefix as Celtic ro; extended forms prāi, prei, before, as Lat. prae; préijos, former, higher, superior, as Lat. prior; preiwós, single, alone (“standing in front”, “isolated from others”), as Lat. priuus, as in preiwtós, private; maybe *propreiwós, but more likely prop(a)triós, one’s own, particular, as Lat. proprius; preismós, first, foremost, as Lat. prīmus; préismkaps (from preismós+kaps), leader, chief, emperor, as Lat. prīnceps (analogous to Ger. fürsten, from the same source as Eng. first); preistanós, former, earlier, as Lat. prīstinus; préscus, old, old man, (cu-, “going”, from verb cā, go), as in Gk. πρέσβυς; próti/pros, against, toward, near, at, as Gk. προς. Other derivatives include Skr. prā, Lith. per, pro, Hitt. per. From pr̥̄mo-, first, cf. O.S. formo, O.E. forma (superl. fyrmest), Lith. рìrmas, O.Pruss. pirmas, probably Lat. prandium “breakfast” from pr̥̄m-ediom; and Greek Gk. πρωτος, from *pr̥̄-to-, reshaped from original PIE pr̥̄-mo-, hence modern Greeek loan “proto-“ properly translated as Europe’s IE pr̥̄mo-, as in Pr̥̄mo-Sindhueurōpaiom.

For IE cā, go, come, and cem, come, compare Gmc. kuman (cf. Goth. quiman, O.E. cuman, Ger. kommen, Eng. come), as in bhicem, become, as Gmc. bikuman (from ámbhi); cémōn, “he who comes”, guest, in welcémōn, welcome, “a desirable guest” (from PIE wel, wish, will), as Gmc. wilkumōn; suffixed cemio, come, as Lat. uenīre, in adcemio, advene, adcémtos, advent, adcemtósā, adventure, adcemtā, avenue, kikromcemio, circumvent, komtrācemio, contravene, komcemio, convene, komcémtos, convent, komcémtiōn, convention, ekcémtos, event, ekcemtuālís, eventual, entercemio, intervene, encemio, invent, encemtósiom, inventory, prāicemio, prevent, procemio, come from, recemio, return, supcemio, souvenir, supcémtiōn, subventio, supercemio, supervene; suffixed cmio, as Gk. bainein, go, walk, step, with cátis, basis, a stepping, tread, base, and -catos, going, and -catā, agential suffix, “one that goes or treads, one that is based”, as in akrocátā, acrobat, as Gk. ἀκροβάτης, anacátis, diacátis, acátiā, diacmio, go through, in diacátā, diabetes; also cmā, step, seat, raised platform, as Gk. bēma.

From PIE wel, wish, will, are derivatives wel(l)io, desire, as Gmc. wil(l)jan (cf. Goth. wiljan, O.S. willian, O.N. vilja, O.E. wyllan, O.Fris. willa, O.H.G. wellan, Du. willen, Ger. wollen), also wéliā, desire, will, power, as Gmc. wiljōn, and wélā, well-being, riches, wealth, as Gmc. welōn; o-grade wolio, choose, as Gmc. waljan (cf. Goth. waljan, Ger. wählen), also wolós, good, well, as Frank. walaz, into wolā, take it easy, rejoice, as Frank.Lat. ualāre (then O.Fr. galer), as in wolnts, gallant, also from Frankish wolopā, gallop, wallop, from O.Fr. galoper (O.N.Fr. waloper); from basic form wel(l)o, wish, desire, as Lat. uelle (present stem o-grade Lat. uol-), as in weleitā, velleity, wolítiōn, volition, wolontāsiós, voluntary, dwenēwolénts, benevolent, maliwoléntiā, malevolence; probably extended adjetive welpís, pleasing, in adverb wólup, with pleasure, into wolúptā, pleasure, as Lat. uoluptās, into woluptuónts(ós), voluptuous. Compare also Gk. elpis, Skt. vṛnoti, varyaḥ, varanam, Av. verenav-, Lith. velyti, O.C.S. voljo, voliti “will”, and veljo, veleti, “ command”, Welsh gwell.

83. Indo-European épi, ópi, near, at, against, is the base for op (and reduced prefixal op-), “before, to, against”, as Lat. ob, ob-, also “on”, as O.C.S. ob; epi, “on, over, at”, as Gk. ἐπι, or opisten, “behind, at the back”, as Gk. opisthen; zero-grade pi, on, in Gk. piezein (see sed); and ops, extra on the side, with, as ópsom, condiment, cooked food, as in opsóniom, supply, as Gk. ὀψώνιον.

84. Proto-Indo-European root ánt, front, forehead, had a common derivative ánti, against, and also in front of, before, end; ántia, end, boundary, as Gmc. andja (cf. Goth. and, O.N. endir, O.E. ende, O.Fris. enda, O.H.G. endi); Lat. ante, as in antiénts, ancient, antiriós, anterior, etc.; enantios, opposite, as Gk. εναντιος; antiqós, “appearing before, having prior aspect” (in compound with PIE oq-, see), former, antique, as Lat. antiquus; ńti, away from, until, unto, as Gmc. und; ántos, end, as Skr. antah. Other IE derivatives attested are Osc. ant, Toch. ānt/ānte, Lith. ant, O.Ir. étan, Hitt. ḫanta, Luw. hantili, Lyc. xñtawata.

The former particle builds a common compound, probably a plural (see plural declension), ánt-bhi, “from both sides”, giving PIE ámbhi (earlier *h₂n̥-b^hi), around, as Gk. ἀμφί, both, both sides, which gives ambhícios, amphibious, as Gk. ἀμφίβιος, or ambhithéatrom, amphitheatre, from Lat. amphitheatrum, itself from Gk. ἀμφιθέατρον; MIE ambhi, ambh, “around, about”, as in Latin, gives ambholā, go about, walk, ambulate, ambholntiā, ambulance, prāiambholós, walking in front, prāiámbholom, preamble; also, Gmc. umbi (cf. O.N. um, umb, O.E. bi, be, ymbe, Du. bij, O.H.G. umbi, bi, Ger. um,bei, Eng. by,but); from Celtic, ambhágtos, embassador, sevant, vassal, and ambhágtiā, embassy, from Lat. ambactos, from Celt. amb(i)actos. Also, in other IE languages, Skr. abhitaḥ, Av. aiwito, aibi, O.Pers. abiy, Toch. āmpi, Lith. abu, O.C.S. oba, Gaul. ambi-, O.Ir. imb-, Ir. um, Welsh am.

85. PIE ad, to, near, at, toward, by, gives Gmc. at (cf. O.N., Goth. at, O.E. æt, O.Fris. et, O.H.G. az), Lat. ad, Osc. adpúd, Umb. ař, Skr. adhi, Phryg. addaket, Gaul. ad, O.Ir. ad, Welsh add, and Ancient Macedonian addai.

86. Compare for PIE root al, beyond, as in olse-, olsos, as O.Lat. ollus, ols, which gives olteriós, ulterior, oltmós, last, oltmā, ultimate, etc. Also, suffixed forms with adj. comp. -tero-, alterós, and alternative anterós, “the other of two”, second, other, cf. Lat. alter, adulterāre, Gmc. antharaz (Goth. anþar, O.S. athar, O.N. annarr, O.E. oþer, Ger. ander), Skr. antaraḥ, Lith. antras, see dwo. Other derivatives are aliós, alnós, else, otherwise, “other of more than two”, as well as alienós, alenós, foreign, alien; compare Gmc. aljaz (Goth. aljis, O.N. allr, elligar, O.E. elles, el-lende, O.H.G. all, eli-lenti), Lat. alius, aliēnus, Osc. allo, Gk. άλλος, Skr. anja, áraṇa-, Av. anja-, airjō, O.Pers. ārija, Toch. alje, ālak/allek, Phryg. alu-, Arm. ail, Gaul. alla, O.Ir. oll,aile, Welsh allan,ail; Lyd. aλaś, probably Hitt. uli-, aluś.

Sometimes said to be derived from PIE al-, common noun and adjective ari(j)ós comes in fact from a PIE root (a)re-, (a)rī, (or rē-, rēi-), “move, pass”, cf. Run. arjostēR, O.Ind. ariar(i)yá-, ār(i)ya-, āryaka; Av. airyō, O.Pers. ariya-, Gaul. ario-, O.Ir. aire; compare also IE superlative aristós, Gk. ἄριστος, “best in birth and rank, noblest”; hence N. pl. names Arijánom, Iran, and Arijanós, Iranian, also ‘aryan’, “the most distinguished, the noblest”, coming from Skr. ārjaḥ, “noble, honorable, respectable”, the name Sanskrit-speaking invaders of India gave themselves in the ancient texts, originally “belonging to the lords”. Ancient Persians gave themselves the same name (cf. O.Pers. arija-, Pahlavi ʼryʼn, Parthian aryān); in Ardashir’s time ērān (from Avestan gen. pl. Ariyānām) retained this meaning, denoting the people rather than the state.

87. PIE de is the base of different prepositions and adverbs; as, o-grade lengthened dō, to, toward, upward, Gmc. tō (cf. O.S., O.Fris. to, O.E. tō, Du. too, O.H.G. zuo, ze Ger. zu); compound qmdo (from qo), as Italic quando; de, from, out of, as deterós, and deteriṓs, worse, which gives deteriosā, deteriorate. Also, compare Lat. donec, Gk. suffix -de, Lith. da-, O.C.S. do, Celtic dī, O.Ir. do.

88. Preposition kom, beside, near, by, with, is attested as Latin cum (O.Lat. com), co-, Slavic (cf. O.C.S. kŭ, Russ. к, ко, ко-, O.Pol. k, ku), also Gk. kata, Hitt. katta (< zero-grade km-ta), in Germanic as participial, collective and intensive prefix ga- (cf. Goth., O.H.G. ga-, O.N. g-, O.E. ge-), “together, with”, also marker of the past participle, and in Celtic kom-, O.Ir. cét-, Welsh cant/gan. Other derivatives include Latin kómtrā, against, opposite, as komtrāsiós, contrary; also, compare usually reconstructed IE *ksun, as Gk. ξυν, which is deemed a greek-psi substrate (Villar) from kom, also in metathesized komiós, common, shared, as Gk. κοινός, hence Komi, Koine, from Gk. κοινή. Also, the -m is usually lost in final syllables before vowel (as in metric), cf. Lat. animum aduertere>animaduertere. In Modern Indo-European, the -m is always written, although it may be pronounced without it.

89. For PIE eghs, out, and variant form eks, compare Lat. ex, Oscan eh-, Umbrian ehe-, Gk. eks, Old Prussian is, Lith. ìš, iž, Ltv. is, iz, O.C.S. iz, izъ, is, Russ. iz, Gaul. ex-, O.Ir. ass, Welsh a, Alb. jashtë. For verbal compounds found in different languages, compare ek(s)bhero, carry out (from bher, carry), cf. Gk. ἐκ-φέρω, Lat. ef-ferō, O.Ir. as-biur, or eksei, go out (from eí, go), cf. Gk. ἔξ-ειμι, Lat. ex-eō, Lith. iš-eĩti, O.C.S. iz-iti. Derivatives include eks, eks-, out of, away from, as Lat. ex, ex-; eks, ek, out of, from, as Gk. ex, ek, as in ekso-, exo-, eksotikós, exotic, eksoterikós, exoteric, komekdok, synecdocha (see dek), from Gk. συνεκδοχή; suffixed comparative variant ekstrós, outward (feminine ekstrā, on the outside), as in ekstrāniós, extrange, ekstrnós, ekstriós, exterior, ekstrnālis, external, etc; ekstmós, outermost, extreme (-mo- functioning as superlative, see comparison of adjectives), cf. entmós, but also ekstrēmós, as Lat. extrēmus; eghskmtós, outermost, last, Gk. ἔσχατος, as in eghskmtologíā, eschatology; Celtic eks, out (of), or Balto-Slavic iz, from, out of.

For PIE dek, take, accept, compare dekē, be fitting (from “be acceptable”), Lat. decēre, as in dekénts, decent; suffixed causative o-grade dokē, teach (from “cause to accept”), as Lat. docere, as in derivatives dokénts, dokilís, docile, doktṓr, doktrínā, dokoméntos, etc.; doko, appear, seem, think (from “cause to accept or be accepted”), as in dókmn, dogma, dokmntikós, dogmatic, doktologíā, doxology (from leg), parádoktos, conflicting with expectation, as Gk. παράδοξος (from para-, beside, see per) as in parádoktom, paradox, as Lat. paradoxum, or wrdhodoktíā (see wrdho-, straight), orthodoxy, wrdhódoktos, orthodox, as Gk. ὀρθὀδοξος; suffixed form dékōs, grace, ornament, as Lat. decus, decoris, and loans dekosā, decorate, dekṓs, seemliness, elegance, beauty, dekosós, decorous; deknós, worthy, deserving, fitting, deign, déknitā, dignity, komdeknós, condign, deknidhakā, dignify, disdeknā, disdain, endeknā, indign, endeknnts, indignant; reduplicated didksko, learn, Lat. discere, as in loans di(dk)skípolos, disciple, di(dk)skiplínā, discipline; Greek words include pandéktās, as Gk. πανδέκται, ekdeko, understand, komekdeko, take on a share of, as Gk. συνεκδέχεσθαι, and komekdok, synecdoche, as Gk. συνεκδοχή; also, o-grade suffix dókos, beam, support, as Gk. δοκός, in dwiplodókos, diplodocus (see dwo).

90. For PIE upo, under, up from under, over, compare Gmc. upp (cf. Goth. iup, O.E. up, uppe, O.H.G. uf, M.L.G. up, Ger. auf); uponos, “put or set up”, open, as Gmc. upanaz (cf. O.N. opinn, O.E. open, O.H.G. offan, Swed. öppen, Dan. aaben, O.Fris. epen); suffixed upt(o), frequently, as Gmc. uft(a) (cf. Goth. ufta, O.N. opt, O.Fris. ofta, Dan. ofte, Ger. oft); variant sup, as Lat. sub, in súpter, secretly, as Lat. subter, and súpo, as Gk. ὑπο-; variant upso (cf. also Hitt. upzi), as Greek úpsos, height, top; from compound upo-sto- (for st- see stā), “one who stands under”, servant, young man, as Cel. wasso-, into V.Lat. uassus, hence MIE upóstos, vassal; úpolos, opal, Skr. upalaḥ, variant of uperós, lower, as Skr. upara- (from upo, Skr. upa, “below”), later borrowed as Gk. opallios, Lat. opalus. Compare Gmc. upp, Ita. sub/sup, Gk. hupo, Ind.-Ira. upa, Toch. /spe, BSl. po, Cel. wo (cf. Gaul. Vo-, O.Ir. fo, Welsh go).

91. For PIE -w, or, cf. Lat. ue, Gk. ϝἐ, ἥ, O.Ind.,Ira. vā, Toch. wa-t/pa-t, Cel. ue, O.Ir. [n]ó, [n]ú, Welsh [ne-]u.

92. PIE bhábhā, bean, broad bean, as Lat. faba, O.Pruss. babo, Russ. боб, Pol. bób, Welsh ffâen, Alb. bathë; also variant forms bháunā, as Gmc. baunō (cf. O.N. baun, O.E. bēan, O.H.G. bona, Ger. Bohne), and bhákos, lentil, as Gk. φακός.

93. Indo-European snéich, snow (and noun snéichs, snow), as Skr. snēha, Av. snaēža, Toch. śiñcatstse, O.Pruss. snaygis, Lith. sniegas, Ltv. sniegs, O.C.S. snegu, Russ. снег, Polish śnieg, O.Ir. snechta, Welsh nyf. Other derivatives are o-grade snóichos, as Gmc. snaiwaz (cf. Goth. snaiws, O.N. snjór, O.E. snāw, O.S., O.H.G. sneo, O.Fris., M.L.G. sne, M.Du. snee, Du. sneeuw), and zero-grade snichs, as Lat. nix, niuis, and sníchā, as Gk. νιφα.

94. Verb wegh, go, transport in a vehicle, move, is attested as “have weight, lift, carry” in Gmc. wegan (cf. Goth. gawigan, O.S. wegan O.N. vega, O.E. wegan, O.Fris. wega, Du. wegen, O.H.G. [bi]wegan, Ger. bewegen, wiegen), Lat. vehō, Osc. veia, Umb. ařveitu, Gk. ekhos, Skr. vahati, Av. vazaiti, Toch. wkäṁ/yakne, O.Pruss. vessis, Lith. vežu, Ltv. vest, O.C.S. vesti, Russ. vezti, Polish wieźć, Gaul. Uecturius, O.Ir. fecht, fén, Welsh gwain, Alb. vjedh, udhë. Common derivatives include wḗghā, weight, unit of weight, wee, from Gmc. wēgō; wéghtis, weight, as Gmc. (ga)wikhtiz (cf. O.N. vætt, O.E. gewiht, O.Fris. wicht, M.Du. gewicht); wéghos, way, course of travel, as Gmc. wegaz (cf. Goth. wigs, O.E., O.S., Du., O.H.G. weg, O.N. vegr, O.Fris. wei); o-grade wóghnos, wagon, as Gmc. wagnaz (cf. O.N. vagn, O.E. wægn, O.S., O.H.G. wagan, O.Fris. wein, Eng. wain); wóghlos, populace, mob, multitude (<”moving mass”), as Gk. οξλος; from Lat. uehere is p.part. weghtós, carried, giving weghtṓr, vector, wegheménts, vehement, wéghikolom, vehicle, komwéghtiōn, convection, etc.; wéghiā, way, road, as Lat. uia, giving weghitikom, voyage, travel, Lat. uiaticum, weghiātikālís, viatical, komweghiā, convey, and komwóghis, convoy (loan-translated from Fr. convoier, variant of conveier), deweghiā, deviate, obhweghiā, obviate, obhweghiós, obvious, prāiweghiós, previous, weghiādéuktos, viaduct, etc.; also, weghsā, agitate (from “set in motion”), as Lat. uexāre; also, komweghsós, convex, (“carried or drawn together to a point”), from Lat. conuexus.

95. Originally PIE root ter, over, gives verb tero, cross over, pass through, overcome, as Skr. tirati, tarati; also contracted as athematic trā, as probable O.Lat. trāre, which gave tran(t)s, across, over, beyond, through, as Lat. trans. Other derivatives include zero-grade tŕilos, hole (<“a boring through”), as Gmc. thurilaz (cf. O.E. þyrel, M.H.G. dürchel, Eng. thrill); tŕqe, through, as, Gmc. thurkh/thurukh (cf. Goth. þaírh, O.S. thuru, O.E. þurh, O.Fris. thruch, M.Du. dore, Du. door, O.H.G. durh); also, in néktār, nectar, drink of gods, from nek, death, and -tar, overcoming, as Gk. νέκταρ, and derivative nektarínā; verb trāio, protect, as Iranian thrāja-; extended truks, savage, fierce, grim (from “overcoming, powerful”), as Lat. trux, as trukulénts, truculent; and therefore also nasalized extended trunks, trunk, deprived of branches or limbs, mutilated (from overcome, maimed), Lat. truncus. Compare all IE derivatives meanig through, beyond: Gmc. thurkh, Lat. trans, Umb. traf, Gk. tar, Skr. tiras, Av. tarə, O.Ir. tre, Welsh tra.

For neks, death, dead person, murder, violent death, compare ON Naglfar, Lat. nex, Toch. näk, Lith. našlys, Ir. éc, Welsh angeu. Derivatives include nekrós, dead, corpse, as Gk. νεκρός; verb nekio, injure, harm, as Skr. naśyati, Av. nasyeiti, and its o-grade nokē, as Lat. nocēre, giving common derivatives as nokénts, nocent, or ṇnokénts, innocent, or nokuós, nocuous; also o-grade noks, injury, hurt, damage, as Lat. noxa, in noksiós, harmful, noxious, and obhnoksiós, obnoxious.

96. Indo-European verb dō, give, evolved (outside Germanic languages) as Lat. dare, Osc. dede, Umb. dadad, Gk. δίδωμι, Skr. dā, dádāti, Av. dadāiti, Pers. dadātuv, Pers. dādan, Phryg. dadón, Arm. tal, O.Pruss. dātwei, Lith. dúoti, Ltv. dot, deva, O.C.S. дати, Russ. дать, Pol. dać, Gaul. doenti, O.Ir. dán, Welsh dawn, Alb. dhashë, (Tosk dhënë, Geg dhąnë), Osset. daettyn, Kashmiri dẏyūn; Hitt. dā, Luw. da-, Lyd. da-, Lyc. da. Derivatives include zero-grade (as Lat. dare) datós, given, from which dátā, date (The Roman convention of closing every article of correspondence by writing “given” and the day and month, meaning “given to messenger”, led to data, “given (pl.)”becoming a term for “the time and place stated”), datḗiuos, dative (”the case of giving”), dátom, datum, trade, transdo, (from trans+da), deliver, hand over, trade, part. transdatós, delivered, handed over, from which transdátiōn, delivery, surrender, a handing over/down, meaning both in Romance languages and English, as Lat. traditio, which gave O.Fr. tra(h)ison (Anglo-Fr. treson, Eng. treason, cf. It. tradimento, Spa. traicio), and O.Fr. tradicion (Eng. tradition, Fr. tradition, It. tradizione, Spa. tradicio); perdo, do away with, destroy, lose, throw away, as in perdátiōn, ruin, destruction, perdition; redo, give back, return, restore, giving part; redatós, rendered, and derivative redátā, rent, payment for use of property (Romance rendita through V.Lat. reddita, influenced by Lat. vendita, “sold”, or maybe Lat. prendita, “taken”); wesnomdo, (from wésnom, v.i.), sell, praise, as Lat. uendere (contacted from Lat. uendumare, from older uēnumdare); also dṓnom, gift, as in dōnṓr, donor, dōnā, give, present, donate, komdōnā, condone, dōntiōn, donation, dōnatḗiuos, donative, perdōnā, grant, forgive, pardon; dṓtis, dowry, marriage, portion, as Lat. dos, also Slavic dōti, gift, dacha, as Russ. dacha; dórom, gift, as Gk. δωρον; part. dótis, something given, as Greek δόσις, giving antídotom, antidote, lit. “given against”, anékdotā, anecdote, apódotis, apodosis, etc.

For PIE wes, buy, compare wésnom, sale, from Lat. uēnum, as in wesnālís, venal; suffixed wosno, buy, as in wosn, buying, opswosn, cooked food, opswosno, buy food, hence opswósniom, purchasing of provisions, as Gk. ὀψώνιον, from which monopswósniom, monopsony; wésā, sale, which gives Eng. bazaar (see qel); suffixed weslís, cheap, base, hence worthless, vile, as Lat. uīlis, with derivatives like weslidhakā, hold cheap, vilify, weslipendo, vilipend (from (s)pen).

From PIE root wes, live, dwell, pass the night, compare Germanic derivatives meaning to be, as o-grade was (as O.E. wæs), lengthened wēz (cf. O.E. wære), or wesan (cf. O.N. vesa, vera, “be”), or Lat. Vesta, household goddess, wástus, town, “place where one dwells”, from Gk. astu, into Lat. skill, craft (practiced in a town), as in wastutós, astute; also, wésenom, house, as Pers. vahanam, as in diwésenom/diwn, divan, from O.Ira. dipivahanam, “document house”, from dipī-, writing, document, from Akkadian tuppu.

Indo-European (s)pen, draw, stretch, spin, gives spenuo, spin, as Gmc. spinnan (cf. Goth. spinnan, O.N., O.Fris. spinna, O.H.G. spinnan, Dan. spinde, Du. spinnen, Ger. spinnen), from which spéntrā, “spinner”, spider, as Gmc. spinthrō (cf. O.E. spīþra, Dan. spinder, and other cognates M.L.G., M.Du., M.H.G., Ger. spinne, Du. spin); extended pendē (intransitive), hang, and pendo, cause to hang, weigh, p.part. penstós (<*pendto-), with frequentative penstā, weigh, consider , as Lat. pensāre, as in pendénts, pendant, péndolom, pendulum, pénstiōn, pénstom, weigh, peso, adpende, append, adpéndīks, appendix, kompendiā, compend, kompéndiom, compendium, kompenstā, compensate, dependē, depend, dependo, pay, expend, ekspendo, expend, enpendo, inpend, propendē, propend, rekompénstā, recompense, supspendo, suspend, etc.; suffixed péniā, lack, poverty (< “a strain, exhaustion”), as Gk. πενια, usually found as suffix -peniā; peno, to toil, and o-grade pónos, toil, verb pono, toil, as in geoponikós, geoponic, lithoponos (from Gk. loan word líthos, stone), lithopone; o-grade (s)pon-, as in spono, span, stretch, bind, as Gmc. spannan (cf. O.E. spannen, O.H.G. spannan, M.Du. spannen), spon, span, Gmc. spanō (cf. O.E. spann; Gmc. word was borrowed into M.L. spannus, hence It. spanna, O.Fr. espanne, Fr. empan “distance”); also, spong, clasp, spangle, from Gmc. spangō (cf. M.Du. spange); póndos, weight, giving Latin expression lbra póndō, “balance by weight” (borrowed into Gmc. punda, “pound”, cf. Goth. pund, O.Fris., O.N. pund, O.H.G. pfunt, Ger. Pfund, M.Du. pont); póndōs, weight, giving derivatives (affected by rhotacism, cf. Lat. pondus, ponder-), pondesā, weigh, ponder, as in prāipondesā, preponderate; also, compare sponde, “of one’s own accord”, as Lat. sponte (maybe from Gmc. spanan, “entice”), as in spondaniós, spontaneus.

97. Indo-European bháres-/bhars-, spelt, barley, grain, is the root for Gmc. bariz/barz (cf. Goth. barizīns, O.N. barr, and also O.E. bær-lic, i.e. “barley-like”), Lat. far (stem farr-), Osc.,Umb. far, Phryg. brisa, OCS brašĭno, Welsh bara. Latin derivatives include bhar(s)ínā, farina, bhar(s)inākiós, farinaceous, bharsgō, farrago, medley, mix of grains for animal feed.

98. PIE verb bhél means thrive, bloom, sprout, as in bhóliom, leaf, as Lat. folium, Gk. φυλλον, as in eksbholiā, exfoliate, debholiā, defoliate, perbholiā, perfoliate, prtbhóliom, portfolio, etc; suffixed o-grade bhlōuo, to flower, blow, as Gmc. blōwan (cf. O.E. blawan, O.H.G. blaen), bhlṓmōn, flower, blossom, as Gmc. blōmōn (cf. Goth. blōma, O.S. blomo, O.N. blómi, Du. bloem, O.H.G. bluomo, Eng. bloom); bhlōs, flower, blossom, as Gmc. bhlōs- (cf. O.E. blōstm, blōstma, Eng. blossom), Lat. flōs (stem flōr- due to rhotacism), as in bhlōs, flora, bhlōsālís, floral, etc.; bhlṓtom, blood, as Gmc. blōthan (cf. Goth. bloþ, O.N. blóð, O.E.,O.Fris. blōd, M.Du. bloet, O.H.G. bluot), bhlōdio, bleed, as Gmc. blōthjan (cf. O.N. blæða, O.E. blēdan, Ger. bluten), bhlōtisā, bless, lit. “treat or hallow with blood”, (originally a blood sprinkling on pagan altars, this word was chosen in O.E. Bibles to translate Lat. benedicere and Gk. eulogein, and is not found with this sense in other Germanic dialects); bhlótos, blade, leaf, from Gmc. blathaz (cf. O.N. blad, O.Fris. bled, Ger. blatt). Other derivatives include Oscan Fluusaí,Toch. pält/pilta, O.Ir. bláth, Welsh blawd.

A proper PIE word for blood is kréwis (earlier root *kreuh₂), as in O.E. hrot, Lat. cruor, Gk. κρέας, O.Ind. kravíṣ, Av. ẋrū-, ẋrūm, O.Pruss. krawian, Lith. kraujas, Ltv. krevele, OCS кръвь, O.Pol. krу, Russ. кровь, O.Ir. cró, Welsh crau. A common adjective is o-grade krowós, raw, uncooked, “bloody”, as Gmc. khrawaz (cf. O.N. hrár, O.E. hrēaw, M.Du.rau, O.H.G. hrāo, Eng. raw, Ger. roh), Lat. crudus, O.Ind. kruras, Av. ẋrūra-.

99. IE verb der, split, peel, flay, as Gmc. teran (cf. Goth. gatairan, O.E. teran, O.S. terian, M.Du. teren, O.H.G. zeran), Gk. δερειν, Skr. darati, Arm. terem, O.C.S. dera, and dérom, piece, as Bret. darn; dŕtom, “something separated or discarded”, turd, Gmc. turdam (cf. O.E. tord, O.N. tord-, M.Du. torde, Du. tort-); der(r)is, leather covering, derris, from Gk. δερρις; dérmn, skin, derma-, as Gk. δέρμα, in compounds dérmnto-, dermato-.

English “tear” (drop from eye), comes from PIE dákrus, attested as Gmc. takhruz (cf. Goth. tagr, O.N. tár, O.Fris. tar, O.E. tēahor, O.H.G. zahar), Lat. lacrĭma (from suffixed dákru-mā, O.Lat. dacruma, compare with evolution of O.Lat. dingua -> Lat. lingua), Gk. δάκρυ, Skr. aśru, Av. asrūazan, Toch. ākär/akrūna, Arm. arc’unk’, Lith. ašara, Ltv. asara, O.Ir. dér, Welsh deigryn.

100. PIE root gno, know, gives derivatives gnēuo, as Gmc. knē(w)an, (cf. O.E. cnāwan, O.H.G. bichnaan, irchnaan), gṇo, know, know how to, be (mentally) able to, Gmc. kunnan (cf. Goth. kannjan, O.N. kenna, O.E. cunnan, O.Fris. kanna, O.H.G. irchennan), o-grade causative gónio, make known, declare, as Gmc. kannjan (cf. O.N. kenna, O.E. cennan, Eng. ken), gntós, known, well-known, usual, excellent, familiar, as Gmc. kunthaz (cf. O.E. cūth, Eng. couth), gńtitā, knowledge, acquaintance, friendship, kinfolk, as Gmc. kunthithō (cf. O.E. cyththu); gnōsko, komgnōsko, get to know, get acquainted with, as in gnōtítiā, notice, gnṓtiōn, notion, gnōtosiós, notorious, komgnítiōn, cognition, rekomgnōsko, recognize, etc.; suffixed -ro-, as ṇgnōrā, not to know, disregard, ignore, or gnros, knowing, expert, and verb gnar(r)ā, tell, relate, narrate; gnōdhlís, knowable, known, famous, noble, as Lat. nōbilis; part. gnōtós, known, noun gnṓtis, knowledge, inquiry, gnṓmōn, judge, interpreter, prognṓtis, diagnṓtis, agnṓtiā, etc., as Gk. γνῶσις, γνώμων; gńtis, knowledge, as Av. zainti-; also probably gnṓtā, note, mark, sign, cypher, as Lat. nota, as in adgnōtā, annotate, komgnōtā, connote, etc., and also gnórmā, carpenter’s square, rule, pattern, precept, norm, as in gnormālís, normal, apgnormālís, abnormal, eghnormís (from eghs+gnorm-), irregular, extraordinary, very large, possibly a borrowing from Etruscan through Greek gnṓrmōn, γνώμων, carpenter’s square, rule. For IE derivatives, compare Lat. nōscō/cognōscō, Umb. naratu, Gk. γιγνωσκειν, Skr. jānā́ti, Av. paitizānənti, O.Pers. xšnāsātiy, Toch. knān/nān, Arm. canot’, O.Pruss. posinnāts, Lith. žinóti, žinaũ, Ltv. zināt, zinu, O.C.S.,O.Russ. знати, знаѬ, Russ. знать, Polish znać, Ir. gnath, Welsh gnawd, Alb. njeh, Kashmiri zānun Osset. zon; Hitt. kanes.

101. PIE root ni, down, below, gives derivatives Skr. ni, Gk. neiothen, O.C.S. nizu, Russ. низ. A common derivative is nitero-, down, downwards, below, beneath, as niteros in Gmc. nitheraz (cf. O.S. nithar, O.N. niðr, O.E. niþera, neoþera, O.Fris. nither, Du. neder, Ger. nieder), or niterom in Skr. nitaram.

For PIE ńdher, under, also possibly derived from ni, compare Gmc. under (cf. Goth. undar, O.N. undir, O.Fris. under, Du. onder, O.H.G. untar), Pers. zēr, Arm. ĕndhup; also, compare ńdhos, below, as Skr. adhah; ndhrós, lower, as Av. aðara-, Lat. īnferus, and ndhriós, inferior; ndhŕnos, lower, inferno, and ndhrnālís, infernal; ńdhrā, infra, below.

English hell, a translation of Lat. infernus, comes from an o-grade noun derived from PIE kel, cover, conceal, save, (cf. Skr. cala, O.Ir. cuile), viz. koli, the underworld (from “concealed place”), Gmc. khaljō (cf. O.N. hel, O.E., O.Fris. helle, Ger. Hölle, Goth. halja; Eng. hell may be from O.N. Hel, the underworld, goddess of death, another transfer of a pagan concept and its word to a Christian idiom); kol(l), covered place, hall, as (dialectally geminated) Gmc. khallō (cf. Goth. halja, O.N. höll, O.E. heall, O.H.G. halla, Du. hal); suffixed koleiós, sheath, as Gk. κολεός; zero-grade kĺos, hole, hollow, as Gmc. khulaz (cf. Goth. us-hulon, O.N. holr, O.Fris., O.H.G. hol, O.E. hol, hulu, M.Du. hool, Ger. hohl, Eng. hole, hull); extended klām, in secret, as Lat. clam, in klamdestēinós, clandestine (possibly a merge of klam-de- and entestēinós, internal, from entos, within, which gives pl. entestḗina, intestine), kalupio, cover, conceal, as Gk. kaluptein, part. kaluptós, covered, as in (a)sukalúptos, from Lat. eucalyptus, and MIE apokalúptis, revelation, from Gk. ἀποκάλυψις, also apocalypsis, from Church Lat. apocalypsis; kélmos, helmet, helm, “protective covering”, as Gmc. khelmaz (cf. Frank. helm, O.E. helm, O.H.G. helm, M.Fr. helmet, dim. of helme); obhkolo, cover over, and part. obhkoltós, covered, occult, from which obhkoltā, to occult; suffixed kólōs, from Lat. color; kélnā, storeroom, chamber, cellar, as Lat. cella; kéliom, lower eyelid, cilium; lengthened-grade kēlā, hide, like in komkēlā, conceal.

102. A Proto-Indo-European stem (s)klau, hook, crooked or forked branch (used as a bar or bolt in primitive structures) is reconstructed for kláustrom, bar, bolt, barrier, as Lat. claustrum, and kláustrā, dam, wall, barricade, stronghold, for Lat. claustra; kláwos, nail, for Lat. clauus; kláwis, key, for Lat. clauis; skláuso, close, Gmc. skhleusan (cf. O.E. beclysan, O.H.G. sliozan, Ger. schlieel); also, compare Gk. kleidos, klobos, Lith. kliuti, kliaudziu, kliuvu, O.C.S. kljucu, kljuciti, O.Ir. clo, M.Ir. clithar.

PIE verb bhec, run, flee, is attested in Balto-Slavic as Lith. begu, O.C.S. begu, bezati; also bhécios, stream, (possibly from an unattested verb bhécio) in Gmc. bakjaz (cf. O.N. bekkr, Eng. beck); and in Greek with the meaning of flee in terror, also o-grade verb bhoco, put to flight, frighten, and noun bhócos, panic, flight, fear, as Gk. φόβος (hence -bhocíā, Gk. -φοβία).

103. For PIE ka(u)put, head, and also fig. top, upper end, chief person, leader, compare Gmc. khaubuthan (Goth. haubiþ, O.N. haufuð, O.E. heafod, O.H.G. houbit, O.Fris. haved, Ger. Haupt), Skr. kapucchala, Lat. caput.

104. PIE verb dem, domesticate, gives o-grade domio, tame, domesticate, as Gmc. tamjan (cf. Goth. gatamjan, O.E. temja, O.E. tem, O.H.G. zemmen); domós, domesticated, tame, Gmc. tamaz (cf. O.N. tamr, O.S., O.Fris., M.L.G., M.Du., O.E. tam, O.H.G. zam, Ger. zahm); domā, tame, subdue, as Lat. domāre; dḿo, tame, as Gk. δαμαν, with derivative ndmánts [n̥-dm̥-’ants], not malleable, adamant, (lit. “not domesticable”) and also diamond, from Vulg.Lat. diamas,-antis, altered from Lat. adămas,-antis, from Gk. ἀδάμας. Other derivatives include Skr. dāmyati, Av. dam, Pers. dām, O.Ir. damnaim, Welsh addef, Osset. domun; Hitt. damaašzi.

For spek, observe, look at, compare spékōn, watcher, spy, as Gmc. spekhōn (cf. Frank. spehon, O.H.G. spehon, M.Du. spien, Ger. spähen, Spion, Eng. spy); from Lat. specere are spékimēn, spéktrom, spekolā, especulate, spékolom, adspéktos, aspect, ekspektā, expect, perspektḗiuā, perspective, respektā, look, respect, supspektā, suspect, etc.; spékiēs, seeing, sight, form, species, as in spekiālís, special; speks, watcher, “he who sees”, in Lat. compounds; dēspekā, despise, look down on; metathesized Grek forms as spekio (Gk. skepio), examine, consider, as in spektikós, skeptic, Gk. σκεπτικός; or o-grade spókos (Gk. skopos), one who watches, or object of attention, aim, target, (as Eng. scope) and verb spokē, see, as in modern jorospókos, horoscope, lit. “time-watcher”, from Gk. ὡροσκόπος, qēlespókiom, from Mod.Lat. telescopium, or epispókos, overseer, bishop (Eng. bishop comes from O.E. bisceope, itself from Vulgar Latin ebiscopus), epispokālís, episcopal, etc. – the change spek->skep happened comparatively late in Greek to be reconstructed in a proper common IE language.

105. For PIE sals, salt, compare Lat. sāl, Umb. salu, Gk. hals, Skr. salila, Illyr. Salapia, Toch. sāle/sālyiye, Arm. aġ, O.Pruss. sal, Lith. saldus, Ltv. sāļš, OCS soli, Russ. соль, Polish sól, O.Ir. salann, Welsh halen, Alb. gjelbson. It gives derivatives as sáldom, Gmc. saltom (cf. O.S., O.N., O.Fris., Goth. salt, O.E. sealt, O.H.G. salz, Du. zout), zero-grade sĺdiā, salt, salt marsh, souse, as Gmc. sultjō (cf. M.E. cylte, Dan.,Nor. sylt, Eng. silt, and O.Fr. sous, into Eng. souse), saldo, to salt, as Lat. sallere, and p.part. salstós (<*saldtós), as in sálstā, sauce, salsa; from Lat. sāl is salásiom, salary, salátā, salad, or salámis; it gives also words for sea, from “salty water”, as in Greek, or in Latin sálom.

PIE root sol (or *solh₂) means whole, and is attested in common derivative soluós, whole, intact, uninjured, as Gk. ὁλος (Ion. οὖλος), Skr. sarvah, Av. haurva, O.Pers. haruva, giving modern words like soluokáustom, holocaust (from neuter Lat. holocaustum, itself from Gk. ὁλόκαυστος, “burned hole”), soluograbhikós, holographic (for gerbh-, v.i. A), or katsoluikós, universal, catholic (as Lat. catholĭcus, Gk. καθολικός, for kat, v.i. B). Also, compare solidós, solid, in komsolidā, consolidate, solidāsiós, jointly liable (source akin to Eng. soldier), sol(i)dtos, soldier, from Lat. solidātus (from sólidos, a Roman gold coin, also salary, lit “one having pay”, cf. It. soldato, Fr. soldat, Spa., Pt. soldado, Swe., Nor., Ger. soldat, Du. soldaat, Russ., Ukr. солдат etc.); sólos, whole, entire, unbroken, as solikitós, solicit, solicitous, or solemnís, solemn, from Lat. (dialectal geminated form) sollus; as zero-grade sálūts, health, as in salutā, greet; also in saluós, whole, safe, healthy, uninjured, from Lat. salvus (into O.Fr. sauf, and then to Eng. safe).

A. For PIE gerbh, scratch, compare Gmc. kerban (cf. O.E. ceorfan, O.H.G. kerban, Eng. carve, Ger. kerben); zero-grade gŕbhis, a cutting(off), as Gmc. kurbiz (O.E. cyrf, Eng. kerf); o-grade gróbhis, edible crustacean, as Gmc. krabiz/krab(b) (cf. O.E. crabba, O.N. krafla, O.H.G. kerbiz, L.Ger. krabben, Eng. crab, crayfish, crawl); grbho, scratch, draw, write, as gŕbhmn [‘gr̥b^h-mn̥], picture, letter, piece of writing, and gŕbhmā, line, with derivatives as (loan words) grbhmntik, grammar, from Gk. γραμματική, and ghŕbhikos, graphic, anágrbhmn, anagram, epígrbhmn, epigram, ṇghrbhíā, agraphia, epigrbh, epigraph, as Gk. ἐπιγραφή, parágrbhos, paragraph, prógrbhmn, programme, etc; also, W.Gmc. grafa, “count” (cf. M.Du. graave, M.L.G. grave, Ger. graf, Eng.-grave), possibly a borrowing from grbhḗus, Gk. grapheus, “scribe”. For other IE derivatives, compare O.Pruss gīrbin, Ltv. grīpsta, O.C.S. žrĕbŭ, Russ. žrebij, Arm. kerel/gerel, Alb. gërvish.

B. For PIE kat-, down, compare Greek kata, down, and suffixed form kátolos, young puppy, young of animals (“dropped”), as Latin catulus.; also found in Ice. haðna, M.H.G. hatele, Sla. kotiti sę (cf. Russ. kotítьsja), dial. kótьka, Sr.-Cr. kot, Pol. wy-kot

106. For Indo-European bhlēig, shine, compare Gmc. blīkh(j)an (cf. O.N. blíkja, O.Ice. bleikr, O.H.G. blīhhan, bleih, O.E. blīcan, Ger. Blech), Lith. blaikštaũs, blaikštýtis, blyškė́ti, Ltv. bližģēt, blaiskums, O.C.S. блѣскъ, блисцати, Russ. blesk, Pol. blask.

107. PIE verb bhel, blow, swell, inflate, is the root for various derivatives including round objects and the notion of tumescent masculinity; as, bhĺā, round vessel, rounded object, bowl, bole, boll, as in Gmc. bullō (cf. O.N. bolle, bolr, O.E.,O.H.G. bolla, M.H.G. bole, M.Du. bolle, bille); zero-grade and bhĺōn, fuller, as Lat. fullō; bhĺōnos, bull, as Gmc. bullōnaz (cf. O.N. boli, O.E. bula, M.Du., Ger. bulle), bhĺokos, bull, as Gmc. bullukaz (cf. O.E. bulluc), bhĺnos, phallus, as Gk. φαλλός; o-grade (dialectally geminated -l in Germanic) bhól(l)os, ball, bhól(l)ā, ball, bullet, round roll, bhól(l)ikos, testicles, bollix (cf. O.E. beallucas); bholtós, bold, from Gmc. balthaz (cf. Goth. balþei, O.N. ballr, baldr, O.E. bald, beald, O.H.G. bald); suffixed bhólnis, bellows, inflated ball, as Lat. follis (cf. Eng. follicle, folly, fool); possibly bhálaniā, whale, from Gk. φάλαινα.

108. MIE dmōn, time, is a loan translation from Germanic tīmōn, (cf. O.Eng. tīma, O.N. timi, Swe. timme), and is derived from PIE root dā, divide, as in dmos, people, land (from “division of society”), from Gk. δημος, as in dāmokratíā, democracy v.i., dāmogrbhíā, demography, epidāmíā, pandāmíā, dāmagṓgos, etc.; alternative root dajo, divide, as in geōdáisia, earth division, geodesy; dáimōn, divider, provider, hence divinity, later “demon, daimon”, v.i.; d(á)itis, division of time, time, season, as Gmc. tīdiz (cf. O.S., O.E. tid, Du. tijd, O.H.G. zīt, Ger. Zeit, Eng. tide), and verb dītio, happen, from “occur in time”, Gmc. tīdjan (cf. O.E. tīdan).

It is unrelated to Lat. tempus, which has an unknown origin. For the Latin word and its derivatives, Modern Indo-European uses loan word témpōs; as, komtemposāsiós, contemporary; témposā, temple (cf. Lat. tempora > V.Lat. tempula); tempesā, temper, moderate, regulate; tempositiā, temporize, etc.

PIE krátos, power, strength, (like Gk. κράτος) gives suffix -kratíā, power, rule, as Gk. - κρατία, adjective kratús, strong, as Gk. κρατυς or alternative kartús, hard, as Gmc. kharthus (cf. Goth. hardus, O.N. harðr, O.E. heard, O.H.G. harto, Du. hard), maybe from PIE root kar-.

Greek δαιμων meant divinity. For Greeks and Romans dæmons were supernatural beings “replete with knowledge”, “divine power”, “fate” or “god”, not necessarily evil. Within the Christian tradition, ideas of “demons” derived as much from the literature that came to be regarded as apocryphal and even heretical as it did from the literature accepted as canonical. It happened more or less like with PIE djḗus (originally meaning heaven, sky, hence sky-god, cf. O.E. Tig, Lat. deus, Gk. Ζεύς, Skr. devaḥ, Lith. devas, O.C.S. deivai), reduced in its Persian meaning as a special (bad) kind of divinity, giving daēva-, “spirit, demon”, so in Asmodeus, Old Persian Æshma, later Æshmadæva.

109. PIE root bher-, with derivatives meaning brown, shining, gives bhrūnós, brown, shining, as Gmc. brūnaz (cf. O.E. brūn, O.N. brúnn, M.Du. bruun, adopted into Romance languages through M.L. brunus, cf. It., Sp. bruno, Fr. brun); reduplicated bhébhrus, brown animal, beaver, as Gmc. bebruz (cf. O.E. beofor, O.H.G. bibar, Low Ger. bever), Lith. bebrus, Cz. bobr, Welsh befer; bhérā/bhérnus, bear, lit. “brown animal” (as O.E. bera, O.H.G. bero, from Gmc. berō, or O.N. björn, from Gmc. bernuz). Compare Lat. fiber, Gk. phrynos, Skr. bhallas, babhrus, Av. bawra, Toch. parno/perne, paräṁ/perne, O.Pruss. bebrus, Ltv. bērs, bebrs, Lith. bėras, bebras, Russ. bobr, Gaul. Bibrax, Welsh befer.

110. Indo-European línom, flax, although sometimes considered a borrowing from a non-Indo-European language, is found in many IE dialects; as, Gmc. linam (cf. Goth. lein, O.E. lin, O.H.G. lin, O.N. lín, Ger. Leinen, Eng. linen), Lat. līnum, Gk. linon, O.Pruss. linno, Lith. linas, Ltv. lini, O.C.S. lĭnŭ, Russ. lën, Polish len, O.Ir. lín, Welsh llin, Alb. liri/lîni.

For PIE wĺnā, wool, compare Gmc. wulnō (cf. Goth. wulla, O.N. ull, O.E. wull, O.Fris. wolle, M.Du. wolle, O.H.G. wolla, Du. wol, Ger. Wolle), Lat. lāna, uellus, Gk. lēnos, Skr. ūrṇā, Av. varənā, Pers. gurs, O.Pruss. wilnis, Lith. vilna, Ltv. vilna, O.C.S. vlŭna, Russ. volna, Pol, wełna, Lith. vilna, O.Ir. olan, Welsh gwlan; Hitt. hulana.

111. PIE chen, strike, kill, slay, as Gk. θείνω, φόνος, Skr. hánti, Av. ǰainti, O.Pers. ajanam, Arm. gan, O.Pruss. guntwei, gunnimai, Lith. genù, giñti, ginù, gìnti, Ltv. dzęnu, dzìt, O.C.S. гънати, женѫ, O.Russ. гънати, жену, Cz. hnáti, ženu, Polish gnać, O.Ir. gonim, Ir. gandr, gonadh, Alb. gjanj; Hitt. kwen, Lyd. qẽn-; Slavic gъnanъ, which stands out in a Satem dialect, appears to be from a source akin to O.Ind. (ā)ghnānás, Av. avaġnāna-, an original ghn- form, which didn’t undergo the satemization trend. It gives derivatives as o-grade chónōn, slayer, cause of ruin or destruction, as Gmc. banōn (cf. Goth. banja, O.N. bani, O.E. bana, O.Fris. bona, O.H.G. bana), which gives also MIE loan word chon, way, road, as in autochon, Autobahn, cf. M.H.G. ban, bane, Ger. Bahn, “way, road” (from “strike” in a technical sense like “swath”); suffixed chńtiā, war, battle, as Gmc. gundjō (cf. O.Ice. gandr, O.E. gūþ, O.N. gunnr into O.E. gunne, giving Mod. Eng. gun), also in chntiāpánōn, standard, “battle flag”, as O.H.G. gundfano, It. gonfalone (for pan-, v.i.); suffixed form chend, giving prefixed verbs in Latin as dēchendo, ward off, defend, and obhchendo, strike against, be offensive, offend; also, suffixed zero-grade chńtros, poison, as Pers. zahr, O.Ira. jathra-.

112. PIE génus, knee, perhaps originally angle, gives Lat. genū, Gk. gonu, Skr. jānu, Av. znum, Pers. zānu, Illyr. Genusus, Toch. kanweṃ/kenīne, Arm. cunr, Russ. звено; Hitt. genu, Palaic ginu-. Variants include Greek o-grade forms, as gónus, knee, which gives polúgonom, polygonum, and gṓniā, angle, corner, which gives gonós, angled, and derivative neuter suffix -gonom, Eng. -gon; also, alternate form gnew-, giving neuter noun gnéwom, knee, as Gmc. knewam (cf. Goth. kniu, O.N. kne, O.E. cnēo[w], O.Fris. kni, M.Du. cnie, O.H.G. kniu), and extended verb gnewio, kneel, “with bent knee”, as Gmc. knewjan (cf. Goth. knussjan, O.E. cneow[l]ian, Eng. kneel), or Gk. γνυξ.

Another meaning for PIE génus is jawbone, cheek, jaw. Compare Gmc. gennuz (from variant génwus, cf. Goth. kinnus, O.N. kinn, O.E. cin, O.H.G. chinni, Eng. chin, Ger. Kinn), Lat. gena, Gk. genus, Skr. hanu (from alternative form ghénus), Av. zanu, Pers. goune(h), Phryg. azon, Toch. śanwem, Arm. cnaut, Lith. žandas, Ltv. zods, Welsh genou, O.Ir. gin, and Ancient Macedonian kanadoi. A common derivative is zero-grade alternative gńdhos, jaw, from Greek.

113. PIE chers, heat, warm, gives common derivatives as Germanic alternative forms chrenuo, burn, be on fire, intransitive, as Gmc. brennan (cf. Goth. brinnan, O.N. brenna, O.E. beornan, byrnan O.H.G. brinnan), and chrenuio, burn, kindle, transitive, as Gmc. brannjan (cf. O.E. bærnan); chróndos, burning or flaming torch, hence also sword, as Gmc. brandaz (cf. O.E. brand, brond, Du. branden, also Frank. brand, into O.Fr.,O.Prov. brand); chermós/chormós, warm, hot, and chérmā, heat, neuter chérmom, giving -chermiā, Eng. -thermy, as Gk. θερμος. Also, Lat. chórkaps, (-kaps is Lat. agential suffix, -keps, “-taker”, from PIE kap), forceps; chórnos, oven, as Lat. furnus; chórniks, arch, vault (from “vaulted brick oven”), as in chornikā, fornicate; chŕtom, clarified butter, ghee, as Skr. ghṛtam. Other known derivatives are Skr. ghṛṇa, Av. garəma, O.Pers. garmapada, Pers. garm, Phryg. germe, Thrac. germas, Arm. jerm, O.Pruss. goro, Lith. garas, Ltv. gars, Russ. žar, O.Ir. fogeir, Welsh gori, Alb. zjarr, Kashmiri germi, garū’m; Hitt. war.

114. Indo-European verb éus, burn, is attested in Gmc. uzjan (cf. ON usli, and in compound [aim]uzjo, cf. as O.N. [eim]yrja, O.H.G. [eim]uria, O.E. [ǣm]erge, Ger. [Amm]ern, Eng. [emb]er), Lat. ūrō, Gk. heuō, Skr. oṣati, Lith. usnis, Ltv. usna, Alb. ushël.

115. PIE root noch-, naked, gives nochetós/nochotós, as Gmc. nakwethaz/nakwathaz (cf. Goth. naqaþs, O.N. nökkviðr, O.Swed. nakuþer, O.E. nacod, O.Fris. nakad, O.H.G. nackot, M.Du. naket), nochedós, as Lat. nūdus, nochmós, metathesized in Gk. γυμνος (gumnos), as in nochmasíā, gymnastics, nochmástā, gymnast, from Gk. γυμναστής, etc., and nochnós, as Skr. nagna, Av. maġna, O.Pers. nagna-; compare also Lith. nuogas, Ltv. nogs, OCS nagŭ, Russ. nagoj, Polish nagi, O.Ir. nocht, Welsh noeth, Kashmiri naṅgay, Hitt. nekumant.

116. Indo-European cer, mount, gives also cor, mountain; cf. Hom.Gk. βορέης, Att.Gk. βορέᾱς, βορρᾱς, O.Ind. giríṣ, Av. gairi-, O.Pers. gar, gīr, Arm. ler, O.Pruss. garian, Lith. girià, guras, O.C.S. гора, горѣ, Russ. гора, Pol. góra, Alb. gur.

English word “mount” comes from Anglo-Fr. mount, itself from O.Fr. mont and O.E. munt, both from Lat. mons, montis, MIE móntis, mountain, (cf. Welsh mynydd), which gives montanós, mountanious, móntaniā, mountain (from V.Lat. montanĕa, feminine noun of V.Lat montaneus, in turn from Lat. montanus), montíkolos, monticule, montā, go up, ascend, climb, mount, as in admontā, amount. It is derived from PIE base men, stand out, project, source of some Western Indo-European words for projecting body parts, as zero-grade mńtos, mouth, Gmc. munthaz (cf. Goth. munþs, O.N. munnr, O.E. muþ, O.Fris. muth, M.Du. mont, Ger. Mund), or méntom, chin, as Lat. mentum; mńā, projecting point, threat, Latin minae, giving mnkiā, menace, prōmnā, drive (animals) onward, (from prō, forth, and mnā, drive animals with shouts), as in prōmntā, promenade; mnē, project, jut, threaten, as ekmnē, stand out, giving ekmnénts, eminent, enmnē, overhang, giving enmnénts, inminent, or promnē, jut out, as in promnénts, prominent, or promntósiom, promontory, from p.part. promntós.

A proper PIE word for “mouth” is ōs, as in O.E. ōr, ON oss, Lat. ōs, Skr. ās, oṣṭha, Av. aosta, O.Pruss. austo, Lith. uosta, Ltv. osta, Russ. usta, Kamviri âša, Hitt. aiš. Derivatives affected by rhotacism are usually from Lat. stem ōr-, as in ōsālís, oral, ōsidhákios, orifice, but most are not affected, as dim. ṓskillom, swing (from “small mask of Bacchus”), giving verb ōskillā, oscillate, and noun ōskilltiōn, oscillation; also, ṓskolom, osculum, giving enōskolā, provide with an opening, inosculate, and also ṓstiom, door, ostium, giving ōstisios, doorkeeper, ostiary (M.Eng. hostiary), etc.

117. PIE root cṓus, fem. cow, or masc. bull, ox, perhaps ultimately imitative of lowing (cf. non-IE Sumerian gu, Chinese ngu, ngo), gives Gmc. kōuz (>kūz, cf. O.N. kú, O.E. cū, O.H.G. cuo, Eng. cow, Ger. Kuh), Lat. bōs (stem bou-), Gk. bous, Skr. gauḥ. Derivatives include coukánā, horn, trumpet, “bellower” (compound with kan-, singer, v.i.), coukanatṓr, buccinator; cóucalos, gazelle (orig. “wild cow”), later buffalo, as Gk. βούβαλος (compare with Lat. būbulus, and as alternative cówalos with Skr. gavalaḥ, all referring to wild animals); suffixed cóunos, ox, as Pali goṇa-; cṓuros, wild ox, as Skr. gauraḥ; zero-grade suffixed cwā, as in compound smkmtómcwā, hecatomb, “sacrifice of a hundred oxen” (see sem, one, kmtóm, hundred), Gk. ἑκατόμβη. Compare all IE derivatives: Gmc. kōuz, Lat. bōs, Osc. buv-, Umb. bum, Gk. βους, Skr. gaus, Av. gáus, Pers. gāv, Thrac. bonassos, Toch. ko/keŭ, Arm. kov Ltv. govs, Russ. govjado, O.Ir. bó, Welsh buw, Kamviri go, Kashmiri gāv, Osset. gal.

118. Noun ármos, arm, upper arm, earlier *h₂rmo-, is attested as Gmc. armaz (cf. Goth. arms, O.N. armr, Eng. earm, O.H.G. aram, O.S., M.Du., arm, O.Fris. erm), Lat. armus, Gk. ἁρμός, Skr. irmas, Arm. armunk, O.C.S. ramo, O.Prus. irmo Osset. arm. Interesting derivatives include árma, (pl. of ármom), tools, arms, armatós, armed, armátā, army, armátolos, armadillo, armatósā, armature, loan word alármā (from O.It. allarme, from all’arme, “to arms”, which could be loan-translated as ad armā), disarmā, disarm, loan word gendárme (“mounted soldiers, men-at-arms”, from O.Fr. gent-d’armes, which could be loan-translated as gntármā); armoníā, from Gk. ἁρμός, joint, shoulder. Base arm- comes ultimately from PIE root ar-, which gives derivaitves like ártis, art, skill, craft, from Lat. ars, as in verb artio, instruct in the arts, as Lat. artīre, and its p.part. artitós, skilled in the arts, which gives artitinos, artisan (from It. artigiano, from V.Lat. artitiānus), artístā, lettered person, artist, from Med.Lat. artista; further suffixed artiós, fiting, even, as Gk. ἄρτιος; ártus, joint (Lat. artus, translation of Gk. arthron, v.i.) as in artíkolos, joint, article; artós, tight, as in artā, compress, and komartā, coarctate; árdhrom, joint, from Gk. ἄρθρον, as in ardhrótis, enardhrótis, komardhrótis, etc.; suffixed superlative aristós, best, as in aristokratíā, aristocracy, from Gk. ἀριστοκρατία.

Probably from the same root are (then o-grade suffixed form) ōrdhio, begin to weave, as Lat. ōrdīrī; further suffixed ṓrdhōn, order (originally a row of threads in a loom), from Lat. ōrdō, as in loan words ōrdhonā, order, ōrdhonatós, ordinate, orderly, komōrdhonā, coordinate, supōrdhonā, subordinate, enōrdhonā, inordinate, ōrdhonāsiós, ordinary, etc.; or differently suffixed ōrnā, adorn, ornate, as Lat. ōrnāre.

Also variant form rē, consider, reckon, confirm, ratify, as Lat. rērī, as in ratós, calculated, which gives rátiōn, calculation, ration, ratio, reason, or rátā, rate, (Med. Lat. rata, from Lat. prō ratā parte, “according to a fixed part”, MIE prō rátā párti); suffixed redho, advise, explain, counsel, and rédhos, counsel, opinion, as Gmc. redan, redaz (cf. Goth. rapjo, O.N. radan, redan, O.Fris. reda, Du. raden, O.H.G. radja, reda, ratan, Eng. read, rede, dread, Ger. reden, Rede, raten), as in redhislio, riddle, Gmc. redisljan (cf. O.E. rædels, O.S. radisli, M.Du. raetsel, Du. rakadsel, O.H.G. radisle, Ger. Rätsel, Eng. riddle).

119. For PIE bhrtēr, brother, compare Gmc. brothar (cf. Goth. brōþar, ON bróðir, O.E. brōþor, O.H.G. bruoder), Lat. frāter, Osc. fratrúm, Umb. fratrom, Gk. φρά̄τηρ (phrātēr), Skr. bhrātṛ, Av. brātar, O.Pers. brātar, Pers. barādar, Kurd. bra, Phryg. brater, Illyr. bra, Toch. pracer/procer, Arm. եղբայր (ełbayr <*erbair), O.Pruss. brāti, bratrīkai, Lith. broterė̃lis, brolis, Ltv. brātarītis, brālis, OCS братръ, братъ, Russ. брат, Polish brat, Gaul. brātir, O.Ir. bráthir Welsh brawd, Kamviri bṛo, Kashmiri boy, Osset. ærvad Lyd. brafr-, Venetic vhraterei,. Derivatives include common bhrātríā, brotherhood ,phratry, as O.Cz. bratřie, O.Pol. braciá, Gk. φρᾱτρία; O.Ind. bhrātryam; also, Latin derivatives bhrā, fra, monk, bhrāternālís, fraternal, bhrātérnitā, fraternity, bhrāternitiā, fraternize, kombhrtēr, confrere, bhrātrikdiom, fratricide (the killing), bhrātrikdā, fratricide (the killer) .

120. For cénā, woman, wife, originally maybe “honoured woman”, compare Gmc. kwenōn (cf. Goth. qino, O.N. kona, O.S. quan, O.E. cwene, O.H.G. quena, Eng. quean), Gk γυνή, O.Ind. janis, gnā, Av. jainish, gənā, Pers. زن (zæn), Phryg. bonekos, Toch. śäṁ/śana, Arm. kin, O.Pruss. genno, O.C.S. žena, Russ. žena, Polish żona, Alb. zonjë, O.Ir. ben, Welsh benyw; Luw. wanatti. Derivatives include West Gmc. cḗnis, woman, wife, queen, as Gmc. kwēniz (cf. Goth. qéns, O.E. cwen, see “queen”), and Greek cńā [g^wn̥-ā], giving -cnā, -gyne, cno-, gyno-, -cnós, -gynous, -cnia, -gyny, and derivatives with cnai-ko- (see a-declension in nouns for more on this special derivative, which appears also in Armenian, and which gives Mod.Gk. γυναίκα), gyneco-, as cnaikokratíā, gynecocracy, cnaikologíā, gynecology, etc., as well as V.Gk. γυννίς, effeminate, etc.

For other IE derivatives meaning “woman, wife” compare:

I. Latin has:

I.A. From PIE dhē(i), suck, suckle, (also “produce, yield”), as dhḗmnā, woman, lit. “she who suckles”, as Lat. femina (cf. Fr. femme, Rom. femeie, as Mod.Eng. female), dhēmnāinós, feminine, ekdhēmnā, effeminate, similar to dhḗlus, female, fruitful as Gk. θήλυς. Other derivatives from the same root include dhḗtos, pregnancy, childbearing, offspring, with adj. dhētós, -, -óm, pregnant; suffixed reduced dhēkuondós, fruitful, fecund; dhḗnom, hay (from “produce”), as Lat. fēnum, faenum; dhēl(l)ā, suck, as in dhēl(l)tiōn, fellatio; dhēlks, fruitful, fertile, lucky, happy, as Lat. felix, as in dhēlīkitā, happiness, felicity, ṇdhēlīkitā, unhappiness, infelicity, dhēlīkitā, felicitate; dhēl, mother’s breast, nipple, as Gk. θηλή, hence endodhēl, endothelium, epidhēl, epithelium, medhjodhēl, mesothelium. Other derivatives include Gmc. dē-/dā- (Goth. daddjan, O.Swed. dia, O.H.G. tila), Skr. dhayati, dhayah, O.C.S. dojiti, dojilica, deti, Russ. деть, Pol. dzieję, O.Prus. dadan, Lith. dele, O.Ir. denaim, dinu.

I.B. From dómūnos, lord (cf. O.Ind. damūnas, Lat. dominos), is dómūnā, woman, woman in charge, lady, Lat. domina (cf. It. donna, Cat. dona, also found as Fr. dame, Spa. doña/dueña, Pt. dona), derived from dṓmos, house, already seen. From Fr. dame are loan words as Nor. dame, Ger. Dame, etc. as well as Eng. madame, madam, ma’am, from O.Fr. ma dame, lit. “my lady”, from L. mea domina (cf. It. madonna), MIE mā dómūnā.

I.C. Lat. mulier (cf. Spa. mujer, Pt. mulher, Rom. muiere) is reconstructed as MIE mliḗr. Although probably unrelated, compare melg, to milk (in parallel with the pair dhē-dhḗmnā), as in zero-grade mĺgē, to milk, as Lat. mulgēre; full grade mélg, to milk, as Gmc. melkan (cf. O.N. mjolka, O.E.,.O.H.G. melcan Du., Ger. melken), and mélugs, milk, as Gmc. meluks (cf. Goth. miluks, O.N. mjölk, O.E. meoluc, milc, O.H.G. miluh, Du. melk, Ger. Milch); compare Lat. mulgeō, Gk. amelgō, Skr. marjati, Toch. malke/malkwer, Lith. melžti, Russ. molozivo, O.Ir. bligim, Welsh blith, Alb. mjelalso. Also, variant melks, milk, compare Gk. ἀμέλγω, Lith. malkas, melzu, Ltv. malks, O.C.S. млѣко, Russ. молоко, Polish mleko.

PIE mélits (early *mélh₁-it-), honey, could be also originally related; compare Gmc. miliths (cf. Goth. miliþ, Eng. mildēaw, O.H.G. milltou, Eng. mildew, Ger. Mehltau), Lat. mel, Gk. melitos, Arm. mełr, Gaul. Melissus, O.Ir. mil, Welsh,Cor. mel, Alb. mjal; Hitt. milit, Luw. mallit-, Palaic malit-.

And all the aforementioned PIE bases may have been originally (but unlikely) derived from root mel/mol (from older *melh₁), to grind, rub, crush, with derivatives referring to various ground or crumbling substances. Common derivatives include méluōn, flour, meal, as Gmc. melwan (cf. Goth. malan, O.N. mala, O.E. melu, O.H.G. malan, Eng. meal, Ger. malen), mĺdā, soil, earth, as Gmc. muldō (cf. Goth. mulda, O.N. mold, O.Fris.,O.E. molde, O.H.G. molta); mol, millstone, mill (coarse meal customarily sprinkled on sacrificial animals), as in Lat. molere, which gives molāsís, molar, molínom, mill, moulin, enmolā, immolate, ekmolo, grind out, as in ekmoloméntom, emolument, gain, originally a miller’s fee for grinding grain; suffixed mélijom, millet, as Lat. milium; suffixed variant málnios, hammer, mallet, Lat. malleus; zero-grade Greek mĺā, mĺos, millstone, mill; extended mlnos, pancake, as O.Russ. blinu. Also, compare Umb. kumaltu, Toch. malyw-/mely-, Arm. malem, Lith. malti, Ltv. malt, OCS melję, Russ. melju, Polish mleć, O.Ir. melim Welsh malu, Alb. miell; Hitt. mallanzi.

PIE root mel means also:

a. IE (s)mel, “soft”, with derivatives referring to soft or softened materials of various kinds. Extended as meldo, melt, as Gmc. meltan; meldio, milt, as Gmc. miltja (cf. O.E., M.Du. milte), móldos, malt, as Gmc. maltaz (cf. O.N. malt, O.E. malt, mealt, Ger. Malz); suffixed variant mlédsnos, slime, as Gk. blennos; mldús, soft, as Lat. mollis; nasalized variant mlandós, smooth, caressing, flattering, soft-spoken, as Lat. blandus; variant form smeld, smelt, as Gmc. smelt (cf. O.E. smelt, smylt, O.H.G. smalz, M.Du, M.L.G. smelten, Ger. Schmelz, and O.Fr. esmail), also loan word (from a Gmc. source into It. smalto or Prov. esmalt), smáldos, smalt, enamel, glaze; extended meldhiós, mild, as Gmc. mildjaz (cf. Goth. mildiþa, O.N. mildr, O.E. milde, O.Fris. milde, O.H.G. milti, Du. mild); máldhā, mixture of wax and pitch, as Gk. maltha; mélskos, mild, mellow, as Gmc. milskaz (cf. O.E. melisc, mylsc, Eng. mulch), mlakos, soft, as Gk. mlakós [ml̥-a-’kos], soft, as Gk. μαλακός, as in mlakologíā, malacology, osteomlákiā; Celtic móltōn, sheep, as O.Fr. moton into Eng. mutton; zero-grade mlús, blunt, dull, dim, as Gk. amblus. Other derivatives include Skr. mrduḥ, Lat. molere, Gk. myle, O.C.S. mlato, also borrowing Finnish mallas.

English “soft” comes from O.E. softe “gentle, easy, comfortable”, from W.Gmc. samfti, MIE from Gmc. samftijaz “level, even, smooth, gentle, soft” (cf. O.S. safti, O.H.G. semfti, Ger. sanft, M.Du. sachte, Du. zacht), MIE sombhtís, sombhtijós, from IE base som- “fitting, agreeable”, as in modern English compound sombhtowor, software.

For PIE wer, perceive, watch out for, compare (kom)worós, watchful, aware, alert, wary, as Gmc. (ga)waraz (cf. Goth. wars, O.N. varr, O.S. giwar, O.E. (ge)wær, O.H.G. giwar, M.Du. gheware, Eng. wary, Ger. gewahr); suffixed wórtos, guard, watching, keeper, as Gmc. wardaz (cf. O.S. ward, O.N. vörðr, O.E. weard, O.H.G. wart, also Fr.,Da. garde, Spa.,Pt. guarda, also into Eng. ‘lord’ and ‘steward’), and wortā, guard, ward, as Gmc. wardōn (cf. O.N. varða, O.S. wardon, O.E. warian, wearian, O.Fris. wardia, O.H.G. warten, M.Du. waerden Ger. warten, O.N.Fr. warder, O.Fr. guarder); wor, goods, protection, ware, as Gmc. waro (cf. O.E. waru, O.Fris. were, M.Du. were, M.H.G., Ger. ware, Du. waar, Swed. vara, Dan. vare), as in English loan translations sombhtowor, software, and kartuwor, hardware (see kratós); also, suffixed wóruos, guard, as Gk. ouros; variant sworā, see, as Gk. horān, in panswóramn, panorama; suffixed werē, respect, feel awe for, as Lat. uerērī, in rewerē, revere.

b. MIE mel, strong, great, meliós, better (originally “stronger”), as Lat. melior, in meliosā, meliorate; suffixed zero-grade mltos, much, many, as Lat. multus; compare also Osc. moltam, Umbr. motar, mutu, Gk. mela, Ltv. milns.

c. IE mel, false, bad, wrong, gives Latin mális, ill, malós, bad, (< mali-gnós, harmful, from PIE gen), as in malghábitos, malady, from mali-ghabitós, in poor condition (see ghabh), malria, “bad air”, malaria (from mal-weriā), malidhaktṓr, malefactor, malidhakós, malefic, etc.; zero-grade mls, into mlsbhāmós, “speaking evil”, blaspheme (from bhā, speak); meliós, treacherous, as Av. mairiia-, into Eng. ‘markhor’.

II. Germanic has:

II.A. English “wife” is possibly from PIE nominal root ghwībhs, shame, pudenda, as Toch. kip/kwipe, “female pudenda”, giving (gh)wbhom, woman, wife, (with semantic weakening from the original meaning) from Gmc. wībam (cf. O.N. vif, O.S., O.Fris., O.E. wif, Dan., Swed. viv, M.Du. wijf, O.H.G. wib, Ger. Weib). Some reconstruct this root as ultimately from the same source as general IE cénā, woman.

English “woman” is an especial compound restricted to English and Dutch, lit. “woman-man”, O.E. wīfmann, from wīf (‘adult female’, Eng. wife) and mann, later wimman (pl. wimmen), as Du. vrouwmens, “wife”; it was originally opposed to wæpen-mann, “weapon-man”, male, with clear sexual overtones.

MIE wébnom, weapon, is the regular IE reconstruction of Gmc. wepnam (cf. O.S. wapan, O.N. vapn, Dan. vaaben, O.Fris. wepin, M.Du. wapen, O.H.G. waffen, Ger. Waffe), without known derivatives outside Germanic.

II.B. Indo-European prṓwā, mistress, woman, gives Gmc. frawō (cf. O.H.G. frouwa, M.H.G. vrouwe, Ger. Frau, Du. vrouw, Yiddish froy), and comes from PIE per.

III. Common Hindustani aurat (cf. Urdu عورت, Hindi औ) comes from Pers. عورت, in turn from Arabic عَوْرَة (imperfection), although the usual Persian word is zæn, from Indo-European cénā.

121. Proto-Indo-European ékwos may have been a suffixed form eku- akin to the lengthened o-grade adjective ōkús, swift, fast (as Lat. ocior, ocius, Gk. ὠκὺς, Skr. āśús); compare Gmc. ekhwaz (cf. Goth. aiƕa, O.N. iór, O.Eng. eoh) Lat. equus, Gk. ἱππος, Skt. aśva, Av. asva-, Phryg. es’, Pers. aspa/asb, Kamviri ušpa, Toch. yuk/yakwe; Old. Pruss. awinan, Lith. ašva, Gaul. epos, O.Ir. ech/each; Welsh ebol; Arm. ēš, Thrac. esvas, Venetic ekvon; Hitt. aśuwas Lyc. esbe-. Common words derived from Greek are ekwopótmos, hippopotamus (from Gk. pótmos, river, from pet, v.i.), lit. “river-horse”, ekwokámpos, hippocampus, ekwodrómos (from Gk. -δρόμος, racecourse), hippodrome, ekwogrū́ps, hippogriff (from It. grifo, Lat. gryphus, Gk. grūps).

For PIE pet, rush, fly, compare derivatives pétrā, feather, as Gmc. fethrō (cf O.N. fjöðr, O.E. feðer, M.Du. vedere, Ger. Feder), peto, go toward, seek, as Lat. petere, as in petítiōn, petolánts, petulant, adpeto, strive after, adpetítos, strong desire, appetite, kompeto, compete, enpeto, attack, énpetus, impetus, enpetuós, impetuous, repeto, repeat; pétnā, feather, wing, as Lat. penna, pinna, as in diminutive petnkolom, pinnacle; propetiós (in compound with pro-, forward), favorable, gracious, propitious, originally a religious term meaning “falling or rushing forward”, hence “eager,” “well-disposed” said of the gods; also, from alternative root pte-, ptérōn, feather, wing, and ptérūks, wing, as Gk. πτερον, as in compounds ptero- and -pteros, -pterūks; ptílōn, soft feathers, down, plume; ptḗnos, winged, flying; reduplicate pipto, fall, and verbal adjective ptōtós, falling, fallen, and nominal derivatives ptṓtis, fall, ptosis, and ptṓmn, a fall, fallen body, corpse, as in kompipto, converge, coincide, from which komptōtós, intersecting, and ṇkomptōtós, not intersecting, asymptote, and also kómptōmn, a happening, symptom of a disease; o-grade pótmos (in compound with Gk. suffix -amo-), “rushing water”, river; péttrom, feather, leaf, as Skr. pattram.

Modern English “horse” comes from Gmc. khursaz (cf. O.Eng. hors, O.N. hross, O.Fris. hors, M.Du. ors, Du. ros, O.H.G. hros, Ger. Roß), which has an uncertain origin; following Germanic phonetic changes it should be translated as MIE kŕsos, which is possibly related with PIE kers, run (cf. O.N. horskr, Lat. currere, Lith. karsiu, Celtic karr), hence maybe originally the same PIE word kŕsos, giving Celtic kárros, wagon.

122. For PIE gher, grasp, enclose, compare derivatives as verb ghrdhio, gird, girt, and noun ghrdhs, girdle, girth, as Gmc. gurd- (cf. O.N. gjördh, O.E. gyrdan, gyrdel); suffixed o-grade ghórtos, enclosure, hence garden, pasture, field, as Gmc. gardaz (cf. Goth. gards, O.N. garðr, O.E. geard, O.Fris. garda, O.H.G. garto, Du. gaard), Lat. hortus, Gk. khortos, O.Ir. gort, Bret. garz, and also, with a wider meaning of house, village, town, city, compare Goth. garþs and O.Ice. gerði, Phryg. -gordum, Gk. κορθίλαι, Alb. garth, -dhi, Toch. kerciye, and (not satemized) O.Ind. gṛhás, Av. gərəđō, Lith. gar̃das, gardinỹs, O.C.S. градъ, Rus. город, -град, Pol. gród, hence Proto-Balto-Slavic gardŏs, suggesting an irregular evolution (for satemized Baltic forms, cf. O.Pruss. sardis, Ltv. zardi). Also, prefixed and suffixd zero-grade komghŕtis, enclosure, yard, company of soldiers, multitude, cohort, as Lat. cohors, cohortis, or cors, cortis, hence also court, as in komghrtisíā, courtesy, curtsy, or komghrtítiā, cortege, komghrtitinos, courtier, (from It. cortigiano) and komghrtitinā, courtesan; and Greek ghóros, dancing ground, dance, dramatic chorus, as in ghorlis, choral, chorale (for Med.Lat. cantus chorālis, MIE ghorālís kántos), or ghorístā, chorister, etc.

123. Adjective swādús, sweet, pleasant, is the origin of Gk. ἡδυς, Skr. svādu, Av. x^wāsta, Toch. swār/swāre, Lith. sūdyti, Polish słodki, Gaul. Suadu, O.Ir. sant, Welsh chwant, and even of further suffixed *swāduís, delightful, as Lat. suāuis. Also, compare derivatives from PIE root swād-, as swādiós, sweet, as Gmc. swotijaz (cf. Goth. sutis, O.N. sötr, O.S. swoti, O.E. swēte, O.H.G. suozi, M.Du. soete, Eng. sweet, Ger. süß); swādē, advise, urge (<“recommend as good”), as in modern derivatives swstiōn (<*swādtio-), advice, disswādē, perswādē; also, swdōs, pleasure, aedes, as Gk. ἡδος, and further suffixed swādon, pleasure, as Gk. ἡδονή, giving modern derivatives swādonikós, hedonic, and swādonísmos, hedonism.

124. PIE root neqt- comes probably from an older verbal root nec, be dark, be night. Common words attested are usually from o-grade nóqts/nóqtis (but compare older Hitt. nekuz, maybe from IE II néqus), as Gmc. nakhts (cf. Goth. nahts, O.N. natt, O.E. niht, neaht, O.H.G. naht, O.Fris., Du., Ger. nacht), Lat. nox (stem noct-), Gk. νυξ, Skr. nakti, Toch. nakcu/nekcīye, Old Prussian naktin, Lith. naktis, Ltv. nakts, O.C.S. nosti, Russ. ночь, Polish noc, O.Ir. innocht, Welsh nos, Alb. natë. Derivatives include nóqtuā, night owl; and suffixed plain verbal root necrós, black, as Lat. niger, as in denecrā, blacken, soil, hence denigrate.

125. For PIE mreghús, brief, compare zero-grade mrghijós, “short-lasting”, hence pleasant, as Gmc. murgijaz (cf. Goth. gamaurgjan, O.E. myrige, O.H.G. murgi, Eng. merry), or extended *mreghuís, as Lat. brevis; compare also Gk. brakhus, Av. mərəzujiti.

126. Indo-European kan, sing, gives Gmc. khannjo (cf. O.E. hana, O.H.G. henna, M.Du. henne), khan(e)nī (cf. O.E. hen, henn), Lat. canere, frequentative kantā, as Lat. cantāre, as in kanttā, adkántos, accent, enkantā, enchant, enkanttiōn, incantation, enkántēiuos, incentive; suffixed kánā, singer; opskan, “one that sings before the augurs”, as Lat. oscen, a singing bird used in divination; kánmēn, song, poem, charm, Lat. carmen.

127. Different PIE words for “ship, nave”:

I. For Indo-European nus/náwis, ship, nave, possibly from an earlier verbal root nau, swim, compare O.E. nōwend, ON nōr, Lat. nauis, Gk. ναυς, Skr. nāu, Av. navāza, O.Pers. nāviyā, Arm. nav, Ir. nau, Welsh noe, Alb. anije, Osset. nau. Common derivatives include nawālís, naval, nawigā, navigate, náwigiom, ship, (pl. náwigia, ships, from which Eng. navy); from Gk. ναυς, ναύτης, are MIE náutā, sailor, mariner, nautikós, nautical, nautílos, sailor, nautilus, āweronáutā, aeuronaut (see wer, air), aqanáutā, aquanaut (see aqā, water), astronáutā, astronaut (see astḗr, star), kosmonáutā, cosmonaut (from Gk. kósmos, cosmos).

I.1. The English term “mariner” comes from PIE móris, sea, lake, pond, as Gmc. mariz (cf. Goth. marei, O.N. marr, O.E. mere, O.H.G. marī, M.Du. meer, Ger. Meer), Lat. mare, Skr. maryādā, O.Pruss. mary, Lith. marios, Ltv. mare, O.C.S. morje, Russ. more, Polish morze, Gaul. (Are)morici, O.Ir. muir, Welsh môr, Alb. përmjerr; giving derivatives móriskos, marsh, water-logged land, as Gmc. mariskaz (cf. O.E. mersc, merisc, O.Fr. maresc, mareis, Du. mars, Ger. Marsch); morinós, marine, moriqéltosā, mariculture, oltrāmorinós, ultramarine.

I.2. For IE áwis (earlier *h₂ewis), bird, compare Lat. avis, Umb. avif, Gk. aetos, Skr. vis, Av. vīš, Arm. hav, Lith. višta, Ltv. vista, Ir. aoi, Welsh hwyad; derivatives include awiāsiós, aviary, awiqéltosā, aviculture, awiátiōn, aviation, and MIE loan word for aeroplane, awiṓn (cf. Fr. avion, Spa. avión, Pt. avião, Rom.,Slo. avion); awispéks, augur, auspice (“observer of birds”, see spek, observe).

Possibly from o-grade are ówjom, egg (alsoa alternative form ójjom, both from earlier *h₁óh₂wiom), as Gmc. ajjam (cf. Goth. ada, O.N. egg, O.E. ǣg, O.H.G. ei, Eng. [cockn]ey) Lat. ōuum, Gk. ōion, Pers. xāyah, Kurd. hék, Arm. dzu, O.C.S. ajĭse, Rus. jajco, Ir. ubh, Welsh ŵy, Bret. ui, Alb. ve,vo. From Latin are owjalís, oval, ówjolos, ovule, ovolo, or owjásios, ovary; from dim. owjókos, O.Ira. āvyakah, are MIE ‘partial’ loan word owjr or ‘full’ loan word kawjr, caviar, from M.Pers. khāvyar, through Turkish into French caviar.

For “aeroplane”, different words exist in MIE, as loan words (from English using Latin words) āweroplánom, from wēr+plánom (cf. Lat. aeroplanum, Eng. airplane, Gk. αεροπλάνο, It.,Spa.,Pt. aeroplano, Lith. aeroplanas, Russ. аэроплан, Pol. aeroplan, Alb. aeroplan, even Saami jarplan, Hebrew ăvirōn, etc.), Germanic pleukomāghan, from pléuk+māghan (cf. Ger. Flugmaschine, Da. flyvemaskine, flyver, Swe. flygmaskin, Fris. fleanmasine) or plánom (cf. Swe. [flyg]plan, Eng. plane), Balto-Slavic [somo]lékts (m., cf. Lith. lėktuvas, Russ. самолёт, Ukr. літак, Pol. samolot, Cz. letadlo, letoun, Slk. lietadlo, Bulg. самолет, Slo. letalo).

An Indo-European root (á)wer, raise, lift, hold suspended, older *h₂wer, is reconstructed for different Greek derivatives: awero, raise, and awrtériā, windpipe, artery, also metáworos, meteor, “lifted in the air” (from méta-, meta-, and -aworós, lifted), Gk. μετέωρος; wēr, air (from lengthened āwer-), as in āweriālís, aerial, or mal-weriā, malaria, lit. “bad air” (see Lat. malós, bad); zero-grade áurā, breath, vapor, aura.

For Indo-European pleu, flow, compare metathesized Lat. pluere, rain, as in plewiós, rainy, pluvious, plewiālís, pluvial; Greek pléutis, sailing, pleusis; zero-grade suffixed plúos, trough, basin, dissimilated in Greek pyelos; suffixed pléumōn, “floater”, lung, as Lat. pulm (from plumon), Gk. pneumōn (influenced by pneu, “breath”), Skr. kloman, O.Pruss. plauti, Lith. plaučiai, Ltv. plaušas, Russ. pljuče, Serb. pluća, as in pleumonós/pleumonāsiós, pulmonary, or pleumoníā, pneumonia; o-grade plóutos, wealth, riches (<“overflowing”), as in ploutokratíā, plutocracy (see kratos), as Gk. πλουτοκρατία; o-grade lengthened plōwo, flow, as Gmc. flōwan (cf. O.N. floa, O.E. flōwan, O.H.G. flouwen, Du. vloeien), suffixed plṓtus, flowing water, deluge, flood, as Gmc. flōthuz (cf. Goth. fiodus, O.N. floð, O.E. flōd, O.Fris. flod, M.Du. vloet, Ger. Flut); extended pleuko, soar through air, fly, also swim, as Gmc. fleugan (cf. O.N. flügja, O.E. flēogan, O.H.G. fliogan, M.Du. vlieghen, Ger. fliegen), Lith. plaukiu, and pléukā, fly, flying insect, as Gmc. fleugōn (cf. O.S. fleiga, O.N. fluga, O.E. flēoge, M.Du. vlieghe, Ger. Fliege), and also maybe pleuko, flee, take flight, as Gmc. fleukhan (cf. O.N. flöja, O.E. flēon, O.H.G. fliohan, Du. vlieden, Ger. fliehen, although sometimes reconstructed as Gmc. thleukhan, as Goth. þliuhan, then later influenced by this root), causative ploukio, put to flight, as Gmc. flaugjan (cf. O.E. flygan, flegan, Eng. fley), pléukikā, arrow, from Gmc. fleugika (cf. Frankish into O.Fr. flèche, It. freccia, Spa.,Pt. flecha); zero-grade plúktis, flight, as Gmc. flugtiz (cf. O.E. flyht, fluht, Low Ger. flugt, Ger. Flucht); also plúgos, bird, dissimilated as Gmc. fuglaz (cf. Gothic fugls, O.E. fugol, O.N. fugl, M.Du. voghel, Ger. vogel, Goth. fugls), also in plúgilos, wing, as Gmc. flugilaz (cf. M.H.G. vlügel, Ger. Flügel); extended pleudo, float, swim, as Gmc. fleutan (cf. O.E. flēotan), and pléutos, fleet, swift, as Gmc. fleutaz (cf. O.N. fljōtr, O.E. fleot), also as zero-grade plud(i)o, float, as Gmc. flotōn (cf. O.E. flotian, Fr. flotter, Spa. flotar, also from same root Lith. plaukti, Du. vloeien),

PIE pneu, breath, is probably an imitative root, which appears in pneuso, sneeze, as Gmc. fneusan (cf. O.N. fnysa, O.E. fnēosan, O.H.G. fnehan, Eng. sneeze), zero-grade pnus(k)o, sneezing, snore, as Gmc. fnus(k)an (affected by rhotacism, cf. O.E. fnora, similar to M.H.G. snarchen, Du. snorken, Ger. schnarchen, Swed. snarka), and variant pneso, snort, gnash one’s teeth, as Gmc. fnesan (cf. O.E. fnǣran, Eng. sneer). Modern Greek derivatives include o-grade pnówiā, -pnowiā, breathing, and pnow, breath, as in ṇpnówiā, apnea, (a)supnówiā, eupnea, superpnówiā, hyperpnea, supopnówiā, hypopnea, etc.; also, pnéumn, breath, wind, spirit, as in pneumo-, pneumnto-.

Also, a Modern Indo-European reconstructed lúptus, air, sky, is the source of Gmc. luftuz (cf. Goth. luftus, O.E. lyft, O.N. lopt, O.H.G. luft, Du. lucht).

For magh, be able, have power, compare Gmc. magan (cf. Goth. magan, O.N. mega, O.E. magan, O.H.G. magan, Ger. mögen, Eng. may, also into V.Lat. exmagāre, MIE [d]eksmaghā, “deprive of power”, frighten, O.Fr. esmaier, Anglo-Norman desmaiier, Eng. dismay, Spa. desmayar), Att.Gk. μῆχος, Dor.Gk. μᾶχος, Skr. magha, Toch. mokats, Arm. mart’ans, Lith. mãgulas, magùs, mė́gstu, mė́gti Ltv. megt, Sla. mogǫ, mogti, (cf. O.C.S. могѫ, мошти, O.Russ. могу, мочи, Russ. мочь, Pol. móc, mogę, Sr.-Cr. могу, моħи, Cz. mohu, můžeš, mосi); mághtis, power, as Gmc. mahtiz (cf. Goth. mahts, O.N. mattr, O.E. miht, meaht, O.Fris., M.Du. macht, Ger. Macht, Eng. might), mághinom, power, strenght, as Gmc. maginam (cf. O.E. mægen, O.N. megenn, Eng. main); suffixed lengthened māghan, machine, device, “that which enables”, from Att.Gk. μηχανή, Dor.Gk. μαχανά̄, māghanikós, mechanic, and māghanísmos, mechanism, from Mod.Lat. mēchanismus, or māghano-; suffixed mághus, magus, member of a priestly caste, magician, (from “mighty one”), as O.Pers. maguš (said by ancient historians to have been originally the name of a Median tribe, borrowed into Gk. μάγος and then into Lat. magus), as in maghikós, magic, or mághikā, sorcery, magic, (as O.Fr. magique, from Lat. magice, from Gk. magikē, fem. of magikos) or Mághes, Magi.

Common MIE lekto, fly (cf. O.C.S. летѣти, лештѫ, Russ. лететь, Pol. lесiеć, lесę, also O.C.S. лѣтати, Russ. летать Pol. latać), and noun lekts, “flyer”, airplane, (cf. Russ. лёт, Sr.-Cr.,Slo. lèt, Pol. lot, Cz. let) is reconstructed for Balto-Slavic common words, cf. Lith. lekiù, lė̃kti, lakstýti, Ltv. lèkt, lęcu, lècu, lę̃kat; compare also O.H.G. lecken, Nor. lakka, Ger. löcken, Lat. lōcusta, Gk. ληκᾶν, λάξ, λακτίζω.

I.3. PIE (a)stḗr, earlier *h₂ster, is found in Gk. ἀστήρ, asterískos, asterisk, asterowéidā, asteorid (in compound with Gk. -ο-ειδης, IE -o-weidā, from wéidos, shape, form, from weid, see, know) as Gk. ἀστεροειδής, astro-, as Gk. ἀστρο-, astrālís, astral, ástrom, as Gk. astron, into Lat. astrum, as in disástrom, disaster; suffixed stersā, Gmc. sterzōn (cf. Goth. stairno, O.S. sterro, O.N. stjarna, O.E. steorra, O.Fris. stera, O.H.G. sterro, Du. ster, Ger. Stern), stérlā, as Lat. stēlla, as in sterlalís, stellar, komsterlátiōn, constellation. Also, compare Skr. tāras, stṛbhis, Pers. setāre, Kurd. stérk/estére, Oss. sthaly, Toch. śre/śćirye, Arm. astł, Welsh seren, Kam. ṛâšto, Hitt. šittar.

II. Indo-European bheid, split, as Gmc. bītan (cf. Goth. beitan, O.E. bītan, O.Fris. bita, M.Du. biten, Ger. beissen), zero-grade bhídis, bite, sting, as Gmc. bitiz (cf. O.E. bite), or bhídā, bit, a pice bitten off, as Gmc. bitōn (cf. O.N. biti, O.E. bite, bita), bhidhrós, bitter, sharp, as O.E. bit(t)er, bhoidhio, harass or hunt with dogs, as Eng. bait or abet , Gmc. baitjan (cf. O.N. beita, O.Fr. beter), bhóids, boat (< “dugout canoe” or “split planking”), as Gmc. bait- (cf. O.E. bāt, Ger., Du. boot, Da.,Nor.,Swe. båt, also O.Fr. batel, Fr. bateau, It. battello, Spa. bote, Sco. bàta, Welsh bad, Hi. pot, even Estonian paat, Japanese bōto, etc.); also nasalized zero-grade bhindo, split, as Lat. findere, with p.part. bhistós (<*bhidto-) giving bhístiōn, fission, bhistṓsā, fissure.

III. Greek baris “Egyptian boat”, from Coptic bari “small boat”, was adopted as bár(i)kā in Latin, as O.Fr. barge (from M.L. barga, and into Bret. bag, Eng. barge), Gk. βάρκα, It. barca, Spa., Pt. barco, barca, Rom. barcă, Alb. varkë, Slo. barka.

IV. Germanic “ship” is reconstructed as MIE skibs, ship, boat, from Gmc. skip- (cf. O.N., O.S., Goth. skip, O.E., M.Du. scip, O.H.G. skif, Dan. skib, Swed. skepp, Du. schip, Ger. Schiff, Yid. shif), possibly a zero-grade extended derivative from skei (in turn derived from PIE sek), cut, split, giving suffixed skéinā, shin, shinbone, (as O.E. scinu), or ekskéinā, backbone, chine, as O.Fr. eschine; from Lat. scire, “know” (from “separate one thing from nother, discern”), are MIE skejéntia, knowledge, learning, science, komskejéntiā, conscience, inchoative skeisko, vote for, giving skéitom, decree, from which pledhuweskéitom, plebiscite (see plēdhūs, people); skíjenā, knife, as O.Ir. scīan, Eng. skean; skeido, separate, defecate, as Gmc. skītan (cf. O.N. skīta, O.E. scītan, O.H.G. skīzzan, Eng. shīt); skidio, split, as (aspirated) Gk. σχιζειν, found in skísmn, schism, skidio-, schizo-; nasalized zero-grade skindo, split, as Lat. scindere, p.part. skistós (<*skidto-), in skístiōn, scission, also in ekskindo, exscind, prāiskindo, prescind, reskindo, rescind; extended skeito, separate, as Gmc. skaithan (cf. Goth. skaidan, O.S. skethan, O.E. scēadan, scadan, O.Fris. sketha, M.Du. sceiden, O.H.G. sceidan, Du. scheiden, Ger. scheiden), skéitom, log, stick, snowshoe, hence ski, as O.N. skīdh, from Gmc. skīdam, also as MIE loan word skī(t); skóitom, shield (< “board”), as Lat. scūtum; extended skeipo, slice, split, as Gmc. skīfan, as in O.N. skīfa, M.E. sheve, M.L.G. schever, Eng. sheave, skive, shiver.

V. For Slavic “lod-“ (cf. O.C.S. алъдии, ладии, O.Russ. лодья, лодъка, Ukr. лодь, Bel. ло́дка, Pol. ɫódź, Cz. lоd᾽, lodí, Sr.-Cr. lađa, Slo. ládja, Bul. ла́дя) a common Slavic oldī, MIE óldīs, is reconstructed (cf. Lith. aldijà, eldijà), also attested as O.E. еаldоđ, “alviolum”, Swe. ålla, Da. ааldе, olde, Nor. оldа, dial. olle.

VI. Common Greek loan words for “boat”, also “crab, beetle”, are karábiōn, as Gk. καράβιον, borrowed in O.C.S., Russ. корабль, O.Pol. korabia, Ukr. корабель, Slk. koráb, Sr.-Cr. korab, корабаљ, also Rom. caraban, also kárabos, as Gk. κάραβος, borrowed in Lat. carabus (cf. Fr. caravelle, It. caravella, Spa. carabela, Pt. caravela,), Alb. karabishte, even Arab qārib, as well as (probably) skarabáios, scarab, as V.Lat. scarabaius (cf. Fr. scarabée, It. scarabeo, Spa. scarabajo, Pt. escaravelho, also in Gk. Σκαραβαίος, Russ.,Bul. скарабей, Sr.-Cr. skarabej, etc.). Probably unrelated to Eng. “crab”, from IE gerbh, “scratch”.

VII. For Persian کشتی (kešti), “ship”, found in Hindustani kašti (cf. Hi. कश्ती, Ur. کشتی), from a source akin to Indo-Iranian kath, “wood”, MIE kadh, kástis (<*kadhti-), possibly non-IE, but maybe a secondary root derived from an earlier *ka-, related to forest, wood; compare with Indo-European roots kat- (“hut”, cf. Lat. casa, Av. kata-, Pers. kad, v.s.), kaito- (“forest”, v.i) and kald- (“wood”, as O.C.S. klada “beam, timber”, Gk. klados “twig”, O.Ir. caill “wood”, and zero-grade kĺdom, Gmc. khultam, cf. O.E.,O.Fris., M.Du. holt, O.H.G. holz)

Indo-European root kaito-, forest, uncultivated land, also wood, is attested (in Celtic and Germanic) as Gaul. kaito-briga (Lat. cēto-briga), O.Welsh coit, O.Cor. cuit, Bret. coet, and also from káitis, Gmc. khaithis (cf. Goth. haiÞi, O.N. heiðr, O.E. hǣð, O.H.G. heida, Eng. heath, Ger. heide), and loan-translated Germanic káitinos, heathen, as Gmc. khaithinaz (cf. Goth. haiÞnō, O.N. heiðinn, O.E. hǣðen, O.H.G. heidan), from Lat. paganus, from Lat. pagus, “land”.

Proto-Indo-European pag, also pak, fasten, gives pakio, join, fit, as gmc. fōgjan (cf. O.E. fēgan, Eng. fay), nasalized panko, seize, as Gmc. panhan (cf. O.E. fang, feng, Du. vangen, O.H.G. fangen), and pango, fasten, as Lat. pangere, as in enpango, impinge, or loan words kompagtós, compact, enpágtos, impact; pāks, peace (from “a binding together by treaty or agreement”), as Lat. pax, in pakidhakā, pacify, pakidhakós, pacific; pakisko, agree, as Lat. pacīscī, as paktós, agreed, páktom, pact; pákslos, stake (fixed in the ground), pole, as Lat. pālus, in MIE pákslikiā, palisade (from V.Lat. pālīcea, into Prov. palissada, Fr. palissade, Spa. palizada), enpakslā, impale, tripaksliā, work hard (from tripáksliom, instrument of torture, from tri-paksli, having three stakes, Lat. tripaliāre, Fr. travailler, It. travagliare, Spa. trabajar, Pt. trabalhar, Cat. treballar, Filipino trabaho, etc., also Eng. travel, from Fr. travail); loan pákslā, spade, as Lat. pāla; lengthened-grade pgos, “boundary staked out on the ground,” district, village, country (cf. Fr. pays, It. paese, Pt.,Spa.,Cat. país, Rom. pajais), as in pāgānós, country-dweller, civilian, then extended as pagan, and pāgénts, inhabitant of a district (as Lat. pāgēnsis, M.Fr. paisant, Eng. peasant, Spa. paisano, Cat. pagès, etc.), pginā, “trellis to which a row of vines is fixed”, hence (by metaphor) column of writing, page, as Lat. pāgina; prōpāgā, propagate (from “fix before”, with prō-, before); pagno, fasten, coagulate, as in pāgtós, coagulated, Gk. πηκτός, or pāgtinā, pectin, and págos, mass, hill.

VIII. Common Slavic word cheln, “boat”, (cf. Russ. челн, Ukr. човен, Cz. člun, Slk. čln, Slo. čoln), MIE tsheln, was the name used by the Cossacks of Zaporizhian Sich within the first military campaigns of the Russian Navy against the Tatars and Turks, using sailboats and rowboats, in the 16^th-17^th centuries.

IX. Persian qayeq and Greek καΐκι, “boat”, are from a source akin to French caique, It. caicco, i.e. probably Turkish kayik, O.Turkish qayghug, maybe from an old Turkic (or otherwise old Asian) word, possibly related to American Indian kayak, and American Spanish cayuco. Hence, MIE kájik, boat, caique, kájak, kayak.

A common Iberian word for “bat” is MIE kaikomūs, “blind mouse” (cf. Gl.-Pt. morcego, Spa. murciégalo, Cat. muricec), from PIE mūs, mouse, Gmc. mūs (cf. O.N.,O.Fris., M.Du., O.E., O.H.G. mūs, Eng. mouse, Ger. Maus), Lat. mūs, Gk. mūs, Skr. mūṣ, Av. mus, Pers. muš, Arm. muk/mug, Lith. musė, O.C.S. mysu, Russ. мышь, Polish mysz, Alb. mi, Kamviri musa. Compare for MIE pleukomūs, lektomūs, “flying mouse”, as Da. flagermus, Nor. flaggermus, Swe. fladdermus, Fae. flogmús, Du. vleermuis, Ger. Fledermaus, Russ. летучая мышь, Bel. лятучая мыш,; cf. also Sr.-Cr. slepi miš, šišmiš, etc. Also, cf. words for night, Gk. νυχτερίδα, Lat. uespertilio.

X. Persian jahāz, also found in Hindustani (cf. Hi. जहाज, जहाज़, Ur. جهاز), is of Arabic origin.

XI. English vessel comes from O.Fr. vessel, in turn from V.Lat. uascellum “small vase or urn” , also “a ship” (cf. Fr. vaisseau, It. vascello, Cat. vaixell, Spa. bajel, and, from Lat. pl.n. uascēlla, Spa. vajilla, Pt. baixela), dim. of uasculum, itself a dim. of uās “vessel” (cf. Fr. vase, It.,Spa.,Pt. vaso, Cat. vas), hence MIE loan words wās, vessel, vase, wáskolom, vessel, ship.

128. Indo-European words for “war, battle”:

I. A common PIE word seems to have been kóros, war, strife, as O.Pers. kāra, Pers. kārzār, Kurd. šer, O.Pruss. kargis, Lith. karas, Ltv. kaŗš, Russ. кара, Pol. kara; with derivatives kórios, armed force, war-band, host, army, troop, as Gmc. kharjaz (cf. Goth. harjis, O.N. herr, O.E. here, O.H.G. heri, Eng. heriot, Ger. Heer), Lith. karias, Gaul. [Tri]corii,O.Ir. cuire; koriános, ruler, leader, commander, as Gk. koiranos; koriobhérghos, “army hill”, hill-fort, later shelter, lodging, army quarters, as Gmc. kharjabergaz (cf. O.N. herbergi, O.E. herebeorg, Du. herberg, Ger. Herberge, Swedish härbärge; meaning shift in Eng. harbor, into Welsh harbwr, see bhergh, v.i. for Germanic haven, “harbour”); koriowóldhos, army-commander, herald (woldho, rule, power, see wal), as Gmc. kharja-waldaz (cf. Anglo-Norman herald, Ger. [Wappen]herold, Fr. héraut, It. araldo, Spa. heraldo, Pt. arauto, etc.), korionéstom, “army provisions”, harness (from néstom, food for a journey, see nes), as Gmc. kharja-nestam (cf. O.Fr. harneis, Eng. harness); denominative korio, harry, ravage, plunder, raid, as Gmc. kharjōn (cf. O.E. hergian); korikrénghos, “host-ring”, assembly, public square (krénghos, ring, see sker), as Gmc. kharihring (cf. O.It. aringo, arringa, Prov. arenga, Eng. harangue, Spa. arenga, etc.).

I.1. PIE wal, be strong, is found as suffixed stative walē, Lat. ualēre, as in walós, strong, wálōs, strength, komtrāwálōs, countervail, walénts, brave, valiant, waléntiā, valence, ambhiwaléntiā, ambivalence, walidós, valid, ṇwalidós, invalid, adwális, avail (from Fr. aval), komwalēsko, convalesce, ekwaluā, evaluate, prāiwalē, prevail, walideiko, say farewell, (see deik, show), walidéiktiōn, valediction, aiqiwalē, have equal force (as Lat. aequi-, Eng. equi-), aiqiwalénts, equivalent; extended o-grade woldho, rule, govern, as Gmc. waldan (cf. O.S., Goth. waldan, O.N. valda, O.E. wealdan, wieldan, O.Fris. walda, O.H.G. waltan, Ger. walten, Eng. wield), and suffixed wólstis (<*wold-ti-), rule, as Sla. volstь (cf. O.C.S. vlasti, Russ. волость, власть), as in opwólstis, oblast, Sla. ob- volstь (cf. O.C.S. область, O.Russ. оболость, Cz. oblast, etc.).

PIE verbal root deik, show, pronounce solemnly, gives Lat. dīcere, say, tell, as in borrowings déiktiōn, diction, deiktā, dictate, déiktātos, dictate, déiktom, dictum, addeiktós, addict, dwenideiko (see dwenós, good), bless, dwenēdéiktiōn, benediction, komdéikiōn, condition, komtrādeiko, contradict, ekdeiko, edict, enterdéiktom, interdict, jowosesdeikós, juridicial, (Lat. iūs, iūris, corresponds to MIE jówos, jowosés, see rhotacism), jowosesdéiktion, jurisdiction, malideiko, maledict, prāideiko, predict, wērideiko, “tell the truth” (see wērós, true), wērideikós, veridical, wēridéiktos, verdict; suffixed zero-grade verb dikā, proclaim, Lat. dicāre, as in apdikā, abdicate, dedikā, dedicate, prāidikā, predicate; agential sufix -dik-, in éndiks, index, indicator, forefinger, endikā, indicate, also jówosdiks, judge, Lat. iūdex, jowosdikiālís, judicial, prāijowosdikā, prejudge, prāijowosdíkiom, prejudice; wíndīks, surety, claimant, avenger, as Lat. uindex, as in windīkā, vindicate, avenge, take revenge; deikno, show, déikmn, sample, pattern, as in deíktis, deixis, deiktikós, deictic, paradéikmn, paradigm, apódeiktis, proof, demonstration, policy (cf. Gk. ἀπόδειξις, into Lat. apodixa, “receipt”, then It. polizza, into Fr. police, Spa. póliza, etc.); zero-grade díkā, justice, right, court case, as in komdikós, syndic, as Gk. σύνδικος, dhesodíkā, theodicy, and diko, throw (from “direct an object”), as in dikskos, disk, Gk. δίσκος; o-grade doikuā, toe (“pointer”), as Gmc. taihwo (cf. O.N. ta, O.E. tahe, O.Fris. tane, O.H.G. zecha, M.Du. te). Variant form deig- gives o-grade doigio, show, instruct, as Gmc. taikjan (cf. Goth. ga-teihan, O.E. tǣcan, O.H.G. zihan, Eng. teach, Ger. zeihen), dóignom, mark, sign, token, as Gmc. taiknam (cf. Goth. taikns, O.S. tekan, O.N. teikn, O.E. tācen, tācn, O.H.G. zeihhan, O.Fris., M.Du. teken, Du. teken, Ger. zeichen), zero-grade dígitos, finger (from “pointer, indicator”).

Indo-European wērós (earlier *werh₁-o-), true, trustworthy, and wḗrā, faithfulness, faith, hence pledge, agreement, promise, treaty, gives Gmc. wēro- (cf. O.E. wǣr, O.Du., O.H.G. war, Du. waar, Ger. wahr), Lat. verax (cf. O.Fr. verai, Anglo-Fr. verrai, O.E. verray, Eng. very), O.C.S. вѣра, Russ. вера, Pol. wiara, Bul. вяра, Welsh gwyr, O.Ir. fir. Derivatives include wērks, truthful, veracious, wḗritā, verity, wēridhakā, verify, etc.

I.2. PIE nes, turn out well, rest, return safely home, gives O.Gk. nehomai (*ninsomai), O.Ind. nasate, Toch. nas-/nes-; also, suffixed néstom, food for a journey, as Gmc. nestam (cf. O.E., O.H.G., O.N. nest), as in korionéstom, harness (for kóros, war, v.s.); o-grade nóstos, a return home, as Gk. νόστος, found in common nostalgíā, in compound with Gk. borrowing -algíā, Gk. αλγία, from álgos, pain, Gk. ἄλγος.

I.3. PIE (s)ker, turn, bend, gives Germanic nasalized extended skreng, wither, shrivel up, as Gmc. skrink, kréngā, a crease, fold, (cf. O.N. hrukka, Eng. ruck), and krengio, wrinkle (cf. Frank. hrukjan, O.Fr. fronce, Eng. flounce), as Gmc. khrunk-; nasalized extended krénghos, circle, something curved, ring, as Gmc. khringaz, (cf. O.E. hring, O.N. hringr, O.Fris. hring, M.Du. rinc, Ger. Ring), also found in O.Fr. renc, reng, “line, row”, which gives loan words krenghs, rank, range, adkrengho, arrange; extended kreukios, back, as Gmc. khrugjaz (cf. O.N. hryggr, O.E. hrycg, O.Fris. hregg, O.S. hruggi, O.H.G. hrukki, Du. rug, Eng. ridge, Ger. Rücken); suffixed variant kurwós, bent, curved, as Lat. curuus, as in kúrwā, curve, kurwatós, curved, or kurwatósā, curvature; suffixed extended krísnis, hair, as Lat. crīnis, krístā, tuft, crest, as Lat. crista, kripsós, curly, as metathesized Lat. crispus, hence MIE krispós, crisp; expressive krisā, wiggle the hips during copulation, as Lat. crīsāre, in krísom, crissum; reduplicated kíkros, ring (metathesized as *kirkos in Latin), also circus, kíkrolos, circle, kikrom-, circum-, kíkrā, go around, hence search, rekikrā, research; suffixed o-grade korōnós, curved, as in korṓnā, anything curved, kind of crown; variant kurtós, convex, as in kurtósis.

Another similar PIE root is (s)ker, cut, also “shear, separate” as in Gmc. skeran (cf. O.E. scieran, sceran, Low Ger.,Du. scheren, Eng. shear, sheer), Gk. keirein, Skr. krnati, krntati, Lith. skiriu, O.Ir. scaraim, Welsh ysgar, ysgyr, Hitt. karsh; skéros, share, portion, division, as Gmc. skeraz (cf. O.N. skör, O.E. scēar, scearu, scaru, O.H.G. scara , Ger. Schar); skḗrā, scissors, as O.E. scēar, in skērbhérghs, “sword protector”, scabbard, as Gmc. skerberg (cf. O.H.G. scarberc, O.Fr escauberc, see bhergh); skŕā, notch, tally, score, from Gmc. skuro (cf. O.N. skor, O.E. scoru); skóriom, low reef (“something cut off”), as Gmc. skarjam (cf. O.N sker, Eng. scar, skerry), skórpos, diagonally-cut end of a board, as Gmc. skarfaz (cf. O.N. skarfr, Eng. scarf), suffixed o-grade skórdos, cut, notch, as Gmc. skardaz (cf. O.E. sceard, Eng. shard); skrdós, short, and skŕdos, skirt, shirt (“cut piece”), as Gmc. skurtaz (cf. O.N. skyrta, Swed. skjorta, O.E. scort, sceort; scyrte, M.Du. scorte, M.H.G. schurz, Du. schort, Ger. Schurz); extended skermo, protect, as Gmc. skirman (cf. O.H.G. skirmen, O.Fr. eskermir), as in MIE skérmā, skirmish (cf. Eng. skirmish, Du. schermutseling, Swe. skärmytsling, O.It. scaramuccia, Spa. escaramuza, etc.), skérmos, shield; variant form kórōn, flesh, as Lat. caro (stem carn-), as in koronālís, carnal, korontiōn, carnation, koron(es)lechlis, carnival, (cf. O.It. carnevale, haplology from Lat. carneleuare) also MIE partial loan karnichlis, koroniuorós, carnivorous; kóriom, leather (from “piece of hide”), as Lat. corium; krtós, short, as Lat. curtus; Greek kórmos, trimmed tree trunk, kóris, bedbug (from “cutter”); skŕā, shore, as Gmc. skurō (cf. O.E. scora, M.L.G. schor, M.Du. scorre); kórteks, bark (“that which can be cut off”); kértsnā, meal (“portion of food), as Lat. cēna; skerbhós, cutting, sharp, as Gmc. skarpaz (cf. Goth. skarp-, O.S. scarp, O.N. skarpr, O.E. scearp, O.Fris. skerp, Du. scherp, Ger. scharf), skróbā, “pieces”, remains, as Gmc. skrapo, skróbho, scrape, as Gmc. skraban, skróbis, trench, dith, as Lat. scrobis, or skrṓbhā, a sow (from “rooter, digger”), as Lat. scrōfa; extended suffixed epikrsiós, at an angle, slanted, “biased”, as Gk. epikarsios (cf. Fr. biais, Eng. bias).

I.4. Germanic “haven” comes from IE kápnā, harbour, perhaps “place that holds ships”, from P.Gmc. *khafnō (cf. O.N. hofn, O.E. hæfen, M.L.G. havene, Ger. Hafen, also O.N. haf, O.E. hæf, “sea”), from PIE kap, grasp (compare with ghabh) cf. Skr. kapati, Gk. kaptein, Ltv. kampiu, O.Ir. cacht, Welsh caeth. Common derivatives include káptiom, handle, as Gmc. khaftjam (cf. O.E. hæft, O.H.G. hefti, Du. hecht, Eng. haft, Ger. Heft); basic form kap, have, hold, as Gmc. khabb- (cf. Goth. haban, O.N. hafa, O.S. hebbjan, O.E. habban, O.Fris. habba, Eng. have, Ger. haben); kapigós, “containing something”, having weight, heavy, as Gmc. khafigaz (cf. cf. O.N. hebig, O.E. hefig); kápokos, hawk, as Gmc. khabukaz (cf. O.N. haukr, O.E. h[e]afoc, M.Du. havik, Ger. Habicht, compare with Russ. kobec); -kaps, “taker”, as Lat. -ceps; kapio, take, seize, catch, lift, as Gmc. hafjan (cf. Goth. hafjan, O.N. hefja, O.E. hebban, Du. heffen, Ger. heben), Lat. capere, as in kapks, capable, capacious, káptiōn, caption, kaptēiuā, captivate, kaptēiuós, captive, kaptós, captive, kaptṓr, captor, kaptosā, capture, antikapio, anticipate, komkapio, conceive, dekapio, deceive, ekskapio, except, enkapio, incept, enterkapio, intercept, preismkáps, prince, moineskáps, citizen, moineskápiom, city, municipality, obhkapā, occupy, partikapā, participate, perkapio, cerceive, rekapio, receive, recover, recuperate, supkaptibhilís, susceptible; variant Greek kōp, oar, handle.

PIE ghabh, also ghebh, give or receive, has derivatives as Gmc. geban (cf. Goth. giban, O.N. gefa,O.E. giefan, O.H.G. geban, Eng. give, Ger. geben), Lat. habēre, Oscan hafíar, Umbrian habe, Skr. gabhasti, Lith. gabana, Ltv. gabana, O.C.S. gobino, Gaul. gabi, O.Ir. gaibid, Welsh gafael, Alb. grabit/grabis. Common derivatives include perghebho, give away, give up, leave off, remit, as Gmc. fargeban (cf. Eng. forgive, Du. vergeven, Ger. vergeben); ghébhtis, something given (or received), gift, as Gmc. giftiz (cf. O.N. gipt, gift, O.Fris. jefte, M.Du. ghifte, Ger. Mitgift), ghóbholom, something paid (or received), tribute, tax, debt, as Gmc. gabulam (cf. O.E. gafol, M.H.G. gaffel, Eng. gavel, Ger. dial. gaffel); ghabhē, hold, possess, have, handle, and ghabitā, dwell, as Lat. habēre, habitāre, in ghabhilís, habile, able, ghábitos, habit, ghabhitābhilís, habitable, ghabhitnts, habitant, ghábhitā, habitat, eksghabhē, exhibit, enghabē, inhibit, proghabē, prohibit; deghabhe, owe, as Lat. debere, as in deghabitós, due, deghábhitom, debit, deghábhita (n.pl), debt.

The proper PIE term for debt seems to be deléghlā, cf. O.Ir. dligim, Goth. dulgs, O.Sla. dlъgъ, and also Lat. in-dulgeō, Gk. ἐν-δελεχής, Alb. glatë, etc., presumably from extended d(e)legh-, from del, long, see dlongho-.

I.5. For PIE bhergh, hide, protect, compare Gmc. bergan (cf. Goth. bairgan, O.N. bjarga, O.H.G. bergan, Ger. bergen), OCS brĕgą, Russ. bereč’, as in zero-grade bhrghio, bury, Gmc. burgjan (cf. O.E. byrgan, Eng. bury).

Related PIE bhergh, high, with derivatives referring to hills and hill-forts, gives Lat. fortis, Skr. barhayati, Av. bərəzant, Pers. burj, Thrac. bergas, Illyr. Berginium, Toch. pärk/pärk, Arm. bardzut’iun, Russ. bereg, Gaul. Bergusia, O.Ir. brí, Welsh bre, bera, Alb. burg; Hitt. parku, Lyc. prije;pruwa, A.Mac. Berga. Common MIE derivatives include borrowing isobhérghs, iceberg (for MIE loan iso-, Gmc. isa-, “ice”, cf. O.N. iss, O.E. is, O.Fris. is, Du. ijs, Ger. Eis), zero-grade bhrghs, hill-fort, castle, hence fortified town, city, as Gmc. burgs (cf. Goth. baurgs, O.N. borg, O.E. burg, burh, byrig, O.H.G. berg, Eng. borough, Ger. Burg, into Lat. burgus, O.Fr. burg, O.Spa. burgo, etc.), bhrghwórōn, “city protector”, townsman, as Gmc. burg-warōn (see wer, cf. O.H.G. burgari, Eng. burgher); suffixed zero-grade bhrghtís, strong, bhŕghtiā, force, as Lat. fortis, fortia (some relate it to dher), in ekbhŕghtis, effort, enbhrghtiā, enforce, bhrghtidhakā, fortify, reenbhrghtiā, reinforce, etc.

The proper IE word for “ice” is jeg, which gives Lith. iža, Ltv. ieze, Russ. ikra, O.Ir. aig, Welsh ia, and suffixed jégilos, ice, icicle, glacier, as Gmc. jekilaz (cf. O.N. jaki, dim. jökull, O.E. gicel, O.H.G. ichil, M.E. [is]ykle, Ger. gicht, oighear, Eng.dial. ickle, Eng. [ic]icle).

PIE root gel-, cold, gives Lat. gelū, Oscan gelan, Lith. gelmenis, Gk. gelandron; extended adjective goldós gives Gmc. kaldaz (cf. Goth. kalds, O.N. kaldr, O.E. cald, ceald, O.H.G. kalt), O.C.S. hlad, Pol. chłód.

PIE dher, hold firmly, support, gives dhermós, firm, strong, as Lat. firmus, in addhermā, affirm, komdhermā, confirm, ṇdhermós, infirm, ill, ṇdhermāríā, infirmary; suffixed zero-grade dhrónos, seat, throne (from “support”); suffixed dhérmn, statute, law, as Skr. dharma (“that which is established firmly”); suffixed dhérenā, a holding firm, Prakrit dharana; dhóros, holding, as Ira. dāra-, Pers. -dār.

IE wer, cover, gives wériā, defence, protection, as Gmc. werjōn (cf. Goth. warjan, O.N. ver, O.E. wer, O.Fris., M.Du. were, O.H.G. wari, Eng. weir, Du. weer, Ger. Wehr); compound apwerio, open, uncover, (ap-, off, away, see apo), as Lat. aperīre, as in apwertós, opened, overt, apwertósā, aperture, overture; opwerio, cover (op-, over, see epi), as Lat. operire, as in komopwerio, cover; wḗrtros, enclosure, as Skr. vatah; o-grade wornio, take heed, warn, as Gmc. warnōn (cf. O.E. warenian, O.N. varna, O.H.G. warnon, Eng. warn, Ger. warnen), in worónts, warrant, authorization, (cf. O.N.Fr. warant, O.Fr. garant), worontíā, warranty, guaranty (cf. O.N.Fr. warantir, Fr. garantie), woro, guard, protect (cf. O.Fr. garer, guerrer), in worótikom, garage, worio, defend, protect (cf. O.Fr. guarir), wórisōn, garrison, wornio, to equip (cf. O.Fr. guarnir).

Derivatives of PIE apo, or ap-, off, away, are Gmc. af- (cf. Goth.,O.N. af, O.E. of, æf, O.Fris. af, of, O.H.G. ab, aba, Eng. of, off, Du. af, Ger. ab), Lat. ab, Gk. apo, Ind.-Ira. apa, Bl.-Sl. po. Common MIE words include apton, behind, as Gmc. aftan (cf. O.E. æftan, Eng. aft, abaft), aptero, after, behind, as Gmc. aftar (cf. O.E. æfter), apuko, turned backward, as Gmc. afugo (cf. O.N. öfugr, O.E. awk); variant po-, on, in, as Balto-Slavic po, Latin extended post, also in verb posino (from Lat. pōnere, from po+sinere, “leave, let”, of obscure origin), p.part, positós, both giving common MIE pógrom, posteriós, posterior, postmŕtim, (see PIE mer), postmortem, positósā, posture, posítiōn, adposine, adposítiōn, komposino, compose, komposítiōn, komtrāpositós, deposino, depositós, disposino, dispose, eksposino, expose, enposino, impose, enpositós, imposed, enpósitom, impost, enterposino, interpose, obhposino, oppose, obhposítiōn, supposino, suppose, supposítiōn, supposition, transposino, transpose, etc.

For PIE mer, rub away, harm, compare mor, goblin, incubus, as Gmc. marōn (cf. O.E. mare, mære, Eng. [night]mare), O.Ir. Morri[gain], Bulg., Serb., Pol. mora, Fr. [cauche]mar; mŕo, waste away, wither, as in mrasmós, marasmus, as Gk. μαρασμός; mrtriom, mortar (from “ground down”) as Lat. mortāriom; extended mordē, bite, as Lat. mordēre, as in mordks, mordacious, remordē, remorse, etc.; suffixed mórbhos, disease, as Lat. morbus, in morbhidós, morbid. Probably the same root is mer, die (cf. Hitt. mer), with derivatives mŕtrom, murder, as Gmc. murthra- (cf. Goth maurþr, O.N. morð, O.E. morðor, O.Fris. morth, M.Du. moort, Ger. Mord, also in M.Lat. murdrum, O.Fr. mordre), mŕtis, death, as Lat. mors, O.Ind. mṛtiṣ, Lith. mir̃tìs, Ltv. mir̃tе, Sla. mьrtь (cf. O.C.S. [съ]мрьть, sъ from svo-, reflexive swe-, Russ. смерть, O.Slo. smȓti, Pol. śmierć, Cz. smrt, etc.), with common Latin derivatives mrtālís, mortal, mrtidhakā, mortify, admortisā, amortize; mrio, die, with irregular p.part. mrtuós, death, as Lat. morire, mortuus, in mrtuāsiós, mortuary, mribhundós, moribund, mrtuótikom, mortgage (from O.Fr. mort and gage, “pledge”, from Frank. wadja, “pledge”, IE wotio); common adjectives mrwós, death, mrtós, mortal, as Gk. βροτος, ṇmrtós [n̥-mr̥-’tos], inmortal, undying, hence also divine, as Lat. inmortalis, Gk. ἄμβροτος, Skr. amrtam; mortiós, mortal, as O.Pers. martiya, into Gk. manticore. Other IE derivatives include Skr. marati, Av. miryeite, O.Pers. amariyata, Pers. mordan, Kurd. mirin, Arm. meṙnil, Lith. mirti, Ltv. mirt, O.C.S. mrĭtvŭ, Russ. meret’, Pol. mord, umrzeć, Gaul. marvos, O.Ir. marb, Welsh marw, Kamviri mṛe, Osset. maryn.

MIE assassinós via Fr. and It., from Arabic hashishiyyin “hashish-users” pl. of hashishiyy, from hashish (Arabic hashish “powdered hemp”, lit. “dry herb”, from hashsha “it became dry, it dried up”). A fanatical Ismaili Muslim sect of the time of the Crusades, with a reputation for murdering opposing leaders after intoxicating themselves by eating hashish. The pl. suffix -in was mistaken in Europe for part of the word (cf. Bedouin).

II. IE wers, confuse, mix up, (compare with IE ers), gives common wérsos, confusion, and loan word fem. MIE wérsā (see rhotacism), both from Gmc. werzaz (cf. O.S. werran, O.H.G. werran, Ger. verwirren; Eng. war is from O.E. wyrre, werre, from O.N.Fr. were, from Frank. werra, as O.H.G. werra, strife, borrowed in Fr. guerre, It.,Spa.,Pt,Cat. guerra); comparative wersiós, worse, and superlative wersistós, worst, as Gmc. wersizōn, wersistaz (cf. Goth. wairsiza, O.S. wirs, wirsista, O.N. verri, verstr, O.E. wyrsa, wyrsta, O.Fris. wirra, wersta, O.H.G. wirsiro, wirsisto); wŕstis, sausage (from “mixture”), as Gmc. wurstiz (cf. O.H.G. wurst)

PIE ers, be in motion, gives variant rēs, rushing, race, as Gmc. rēsan (cf. O.N. rás, O.E. ræs, M.Du. rasen, Ger. rasen); suffixed ersā, wander, Lat. errāre, as in ersātikós, erratic, ersta, errata, ersāniós, erroneous, ersṓr, error, aperstiōn, aberration; zero-grade ŕsis, poet, seer, Skr. rsiḥ.

III. Indo-European wen, strive after, wish, desire, be satisfied, is the source for wóinos, soldier, and wóinā, war, as Sla. voin’ (O.C.S., O.Russ. воинъ, Ukr. воïн, Sr.-Cr., Slo.,Bul. vojnik, Cz.,Slk. vojin) and vojna; with similar meanings of hunt, chase, pursue, cf. O.N. veiðr, O.E. waþ, O.H.G. weida, Lat. venāri, Gk. ἴεμαι, O.Ind. vēti, Av. vayeiti, Lith. vejù, výti, O.Ir. fíad. Other IE derivatives include wénos, desire, as Skr. vanas; wénuo, win, Gmc. winn(w)an (cf. f. Goth. gawinnen, O.S. winnan, O.N. vinna, O.E. winnan, O.Fris. winna, O.H.G. winnan, Du. winnen), suffixed zero-grade wńiā, pleasure, joy, as Gmc. wunjō (cf. O.E. wen, wynn, Ger.Wonne); stative wnē, be content, rejoice, extended as be accustomed to, dwell, as Gmc. wunēn (cf. O.E. wunian, O.S. wunon, O.Fris. wonia, O.H.G. wonen, Eng. wont); suffixed causative o-grade wonē, accustom, train, wean, as Gmc. wanjan (cf. O.N. venja, O.E. wenian, Du. vennen, O.H.G. giwennan, Ger. gewöhnen); wḗnis, hope, and verb wēnio, expect, imagine, think, as Gmc. wēniz and wēnjan (cf. Goth. wenjan, O.S. wanian, O.N. væna, O.E. wenan, O.Fris. wena, O.H.G. wanen, Ger. wähnen, Eng. ween); suffixed zero-grade wnsko, desire, wish, wńskos, wish, as Gmc. wunskan, wunskaz (cf. O.N. æskja, O.E. wyscan, M.Du. wonscen, O.H.G. wunsken); wénōs, love, giving wenesā, worship, venerate, wenesiós, venereal, etc., with rhotacism as Lat. uenus, ueneris; wenésnom, poison (originally love poison), as Lat. uenēnum, wéniā, favor, forgiveness, Lat. uenia; wenā, hunt, from Lat. uēnārī; wénom, forest, as Skr. vanam.

IV. Indo-European cer- (or *g^werh₂), heavy, gives crús, heavy, venerable, as Goth. kaurus, Gk. βαρύς, Skr. guruh, cṛuspháirā, barysphere (from Gk. spháirā, sphere), cṛútonos, baritone, and extended Lat. *g^wruís, heavy, weighty, grave, as Lat. gravis, cŕuitā, gravity, cruā, burden, adcruā, aggravate, etc.; cŕōs, weight, heaviness, as Gk. βάρος, as in wiswocŕōs, isobar (from Gk. īsós, equal, probably either from widwós, who has seen, from weid, know, see, or wiswós, all, as O.Ind. visvaḥ); udcri (see ud); crūtós, heavy, unwieldy, dull, stupid, brutish, as Lat. brūtus; crgos, strenght, vigor, crgā, strife, as in crīgátā, brigade, found in Celt. brīgo (cf. Prov. briu, Spa. brío), Gmc. krīg (cf. O.H.G. krēg, chrēg, M.H.G. kriec, Sca. krig, Ger. Krieg), Cel. brīgā (cf. O.Ita. briga, Fr. brigade); cérnā, millstone, as Gmc. kwernōn (Goth. quirnus, O.N. kvern, O.E. cweorn, O.Fris. quern, O.H.G. quirn, Eng. quern, Ger. Querne), Skr. grava, Arm. erkan, O.Pruss. girnoywis, Lith. girna, girnos, Ltv. dzirnus, O.C.S. zrunuvi, Russ. žërnov, Pol. żarno, O.Ir. braó, Welsh brevan.

V. Indo-European dwéllom, war, also duel (O.Lat. duellum, Lat. bellum), is maybe cognate with O.Ind. dunoti, duta-, O.Gk. du, duero, Alb. un, from a PIE verbal root du meaning torment, pain; common Latin loans include dwelligeránts, belligerent (from Lat. dwelligerā, make war, from Lat. gerere, “wage”), kástos dwélli, casus belli (see kad).

For PIE kad, fall, befall, also die, compare Lat. cadere, O.Ind. sad, Arm. chacnum, M.Ir. casar, Welsh cesair, Corn. keser, Bret. kasarc’h; Latin derivatives include kadáuēr, cadaver, kadénts, cadent, kadéntiā, cadence, chance, adkado, happen, adkadénts, accident, enkado, happen, enkádents, incident, dekado, decay, obhkado, fall, obhkádents, occident, and from p.part. kastós (<*kadto-), giving kastkátā, cascade, kástos, case, kastuālís, casual, kastuístā, casuist, obhkástos, sunset, obhkástiōn, occasion, etc.;

A similar but probably unrelated PIE root is dheu (older *dheuh₂), die, also dhwei, found as dhoutós, dead, Gmc. dauthaz (cf. O.E. dēad), o-grade dhóutus, death, (with suffix -tus indicating “act, process, condition”), as Gmc. dauthuz (cf. O.E. dēath); suffixed o-grade dhowio, die, as O.N. deyja; extended zero-grade dhwino, diminish, languish, as Gmc. dwinan (cf. O.E. dwinan, Du. dwijnen, Eng. dwindle). The verb comes probably from dhew, close, finish, come full circle; cf. Lat. funus, -eris, Arm. di (gen. diog), Cel. dwutu- (cf. OIr duth). Derivatives include suffixed zero-grade dhū́nos, enclosed, fortified place, hill-fort, as Gmc. dūnaz (cf. O.E. dūn, M.Du. dūne, Eng. down, dune); also, from the same source is Celtic dūnos, “hill, stronghold”, borrowed in Gmc. tūnaz (cf. O.E. tun, Eng. town); dhū́nōs, funeral, as Lat. fūnus.

The same IE root dhew means also “run, flow”, as in Gmc. dauwaz, (cf. O.E. deaw, M.Du. dau, Eng. dew), Skr. dhautiḥ, M.Pers. davadan; and also “shine, be light”, as O.Gk. theousan, O.Ind. dhavala-, Av. fraavata.

VI. Common Greek loans are pólemos, war, Gk. πόλεμος, giving polemikós, hostile, hence polemic.

129. For PIE swésōr, (possibly from reflexive swe, and ésōr, woman, then lit. “woman of one’s own kin group” in an exogamous society, see also swe-kuro-), with zero-grade alternative swésr, compare Gmc. swestr- (cf. Goth. swistar, O.N. systir, O.S. swestar, O.E. sweostor, swuster, O.Fris. swester, M.Du. suster, O.H.G. swester, Du. zuster, Eng. sister, Ger. Schwester), Lat. soror, O.Gk. eor, Skr. svasṛ, Av. xvaṅhar, Pers. xāhar, Toch. ṣar/ṣer, Arm. k’uyr, O.Pruss. swestro, Lith. sesuo, O.C.S. sestra, Russ. сестра, Pol. siostra, Gaul. suiior, O.Ir. siur, Welsh chwaer, Kamviri sus. It gave common derivatives latin swesrikdiom, sororicide, swesorālís, sororal, suffixed swesrnos, cousin, from Lat. sobrīnus, “maternal cousin”.

130. For PIE súnus, also súnjus, son, compare Gmc. sunuz (cf. Goth. sunus, O.N. sonr, O.E. sunu, O.S., O.Fris. sunu, O.H.G. sunu, M.Du. sone, Dan. søn, Swed. son, Du. zoon, Ger. Sohn), Gk. huios, Skr. sunus, Av. hunush, Arm. ustr, Lith. sunus, O.C.S. synu, Rus., Pol. syn, from PIE root su, give birth, Skr. sauti, O.Ir. suth.

I. For Romance words from Lat. filius, MIE dhḗilios, “suckling”, son, and dhḗiliā, daughter, as in dhēiliālís, filial, addheiliā, affiliate; probably from PIE dhēi, suck, although some relate it to PIE bhew, be, exist (in both IE dh- and bh- evolved as Lat. f-), thus maybe IE *bhlios – but, v.i. for Slavic derivative ‘diti‘ meaning “child, son”, from the same root dhēi.

For IE bhew, be, exist, grow, and common derivative bhwijo, be, become, give Gmc biju (cf. O.E. beon, O.H.G. bim, bist, Eng. be), Skt. bhavaḥ, bhavati, bhumiḥ, Lat. fieri, fui, Gk. phu-, Lith. bu’ti, O.C.S. byti, O.Ir. bi’u, Rus. быть; bhowo, live, dwell, as Gmc. bowan (cf. O.N. bua, buask, O.H.G. buan, Eng. bound, husband, Ger. bauen); zero-grade bhútlos, dwelling, house, from Gmc. buthlaz (cf. O.E. bold, byldan, M.Du. bodel, Eng. build), bhwo, bring forth, make grow, as Gk. phuein, as in bhútos, bhútom, plant, and bhútis, growth, nature, as in bhútikā, physics, bhutikós, physic, epíbhutis, epiphysis, diábhutis, diaphysis, supóbhutis, hypophysis, etc.; suffixed bhutús, “that is to be”, and Lat. futurus, MIE bhutū́ros, future; zero-grade bhū́rom, dweller (especially farmer), gives Gmc. buram (cf. O.E. bur, Eng. bower, Ger. Bauer), kombhū́rom, dweller, peasant, (cf. O.E. gebur, M.Du. gheboer, ghebuer, Eng. neighbor, Du. boer, boor), bhū́riom, dwelling, as Gmc. burjam (cf. O.E. byre), or bhū́wis, settlement (cf. O.N. byr, Eng. by[law]); bhū́lom, tribe, class, race, Gk. φύλον, and bhū́lā, tribe, clan, as in Eng. phylum, phyle, phylo-; zero-grade reduced suffixal form -bhw- in Lat. compounds dubhwiós, doubtful (from zero-grade of dwo, two), Lat. dubius, dúbhwitā, doubt, Lat. dubitāre, probhwós, upright, Lat. probus, “growing well or straightforward”, superbhwós, superior, proud, “being above”, as Lat. superbuus; bhóumos, tree (“growing thing”), as Gmc. baumaz (cf. O.E. beam, M.Du. boom, Eng. beam).

II. Slavic “diti’, “child, son”, comes from Slavic dětę, dětь (cf. O.C.S. дѢти, S.C.S. дѣть, Russ. дитя, Pol. dziecię, Cz. dítě, Bul. дете́), MIE dhḗitis, “suckling”, child, (see also Lat. filius), from PIE dhēi, also found in Lat. fēlāre, fēmina, Gk. θήσατο , θηλή, O.Ind. dhā́tavē, Lith. dėlė̃, O.Ir. dínim.

III. Germanic “maiden” comes from Indo-European mághotis, maid, young womanhood, sexually inexperienced female, virgin (dim. mághotinom, “little maid”), as Gmc. magadinam (cf. O.E. mægeð, mægden, O.S. magath, O.Fris. maged, O.H.G. magad, Ger. Magd, Mädchen), from mághus, young person of either sex, unmarried person, cf. O.E. magu, Avestan magava, O.Ir. maug.

131. Indo-European dhúg(a)tēr, older *dhug(h₂)ter, daughter, Gmc. dukter (cf. Goth. dauhtar, O.N. dóttir, O.E. dohtor, O.H.G. tohter, Scots, Du. dochter, Swe. dotter), Osc. fútir, Gk. θυγατήρ (thugatēr), Skr. duhitṛ, Av. duydar, Pers. doxtar, Toch. ckācar/tkacer, Arm. dustr, O.Pruss. duckti, Lith. duktė, O.C.S. dŭšti, Russ. дочь, dočer’, Gaul. duxtīr, Kamviri jü; Hitt. duttariyatiyaš, Luw. duttariyata.

132. Other PIE common words referring to relatives, apart from patḗr, mātḗr, bhrtēr and snúsos are:

A. IE jén(a)tēr, older *jenh₂ter, brother-in-law’s wife, gives Lat. ianitrīcēs, Gk. einatēr, Skr. yātar, Phryg. ianatera, Arm. ner, Lith. jentė, Ltv. ietere, Russ. jatrov’, Pol. jątrew, Kamviri iâri.

B. IE dáiwēr (older *deh₂iwer), husband’s brother, O.E. tācor, O.H.G. zeihhur, Lat. lēvir, Gk. dāēr, Skr. devar, Kurd. diš/héwer, Arm. taygr, Lith. dieveris, Ltv. dieveris, OCS dĕverĭ, Russ. dever’, Pol. dziewierz.

C. A comon gálōus (PIE *gh₂lōus) gave Gk. galōs, Phryg. gelaros, O.C.S. zlŭva, Russ. zolovka, Pol. zełwa.

D. For PIE áwos, áwjos, paternal grandfather, maternal uncle (originally *h₂euh₂os, an adult male relative other than one’s father), compare Gmc. awaz (cf. Goth. awó, O.E. ēam, O.H.G. ōheim, Ger. Oheim), Lat. avus, avunculus, Gk. aia, Arm. hav, O.Pruss. awis, Lith. avynas, O.C.S. uy, Russ. uj, Pol. wuj, Gaul. avontīr, O.Ir. aue, Welsh ewythr; Hitt. huhhas. Also found in feminine áwjā, grandmother (cf. Lat. avia).

E. IE népōts (gen. neptós), grandson, nephew, gives Gmc. nefat- (cf. O.E. nefa, O.H.G. nevo, Eng. nephew, Ger. Neffe), Lat. nepōs, Gk. anepsios, Skr. napāt, Av. napāt, O.Pers. napā, Pers. nave, Lith. nepuotis, O.C.S. nestera, Russ. nestera, Pol. nieściora, Gaul. nei, OIr. necht, níath, Welsh nai, Kamviri nâvo, Alb. nip.

F. PIE swékuros, father-in-law, give Gmc. swikhura- (cf. Goth. swaíhrō, O.N. svǽra, Eng. swēor, O.H.G. swehur, swagur), Gk. hekuros, Skr. śvaśura, Av. xvasura-, Arm. skesur, Lith. šešuras, O.C.S. svekŭrŭ, Russ. svekrov’, Pol. świekra, Welsh chwegr, Alb. vjehërr, Kamviri č.uč. probably ultimately derived from fem. swekrū́s, mother-in-law, as O.H.G. swigar, Ger. Schwieger, Lat. socrus, Skr. śvaśrū, O.Sla. svekry, etc.

133. PIE jéwos, norm, right, law (possibly from PIE jeu, bind), as in O.Ind. yōḥ, Av. yaožda, refers in MIE to the body of rules and standards to be applied by courts; jówos, law, as Lat. iūs, iūris (O.Lat. ious), and jowosā, swear, Lat. jūrō (O.Lat. iouesat, see rhotacism), p.part. jowosātós, sweared, giving Latin common borrowings jowosístos, jurist, apjowosā, abjure, adjowosā, adjure, komjowosā, conjure, jówosātos, jury, enjowosā, injury, perjowosā, perjure, jowoseskomséltos, jurisconsult, jowosesproweidéntiā, jurisprudence (from proweidéntiā, from IE per and weid); Italo-Celtic jowest(i)ós, just, as Lat. iustus, O.Ir. huisse (<*justjos).

MIE komselo, counsel, call together, deliberate, consider, as Lat. consulere, found in Lat. consulere senatum, MIE komséltu senátum, “to gather the senate (to ask for advice)”, from kom- "with" + selo “take, gather together” from PIE base sel- “to take, seize” .

134. For “law” as a written or understood rule or the body of rules from the legislative authority, i.e. the concept of Lat. lex, MIE has different words:

I. Latin lex, legis, comes possibly from PIE lengthened *lēgs, hence lit. “collection of rules” (see PIE leg, collect), although it is used as Modern Indo-European lēghs (both IE g and gh could evolve as g in Latin), from PIE legh, lie, lay, because its final origin remains uncertain, and this root gives also Germanic o-grade lóghom, law, “that which is set or laid down”, Gmc. lagam (cf. O.N.,O.E. lagu, lag-, O.H.G. lāga, Eng. law, Sca. lov, Ger. Lage), with common derivatives lēghālís, legal, lēghitimā, legitimate, lēghiālís, loyal, lēgheslatṓr, legislator, preiwolḗghiom, privilege (“a law affecting one person”, from preiwós, private), and from Latin denominative lḗghā, depute, commision, charge, legate (“engage by contract”), as Lat. legāre, are lḗghātom, legacy, komlḗghā, colleage, komlēghiālís, collegial, delḗghātos, delegate, relēghā, relegate. Other known derivatives include léghio, lay, as Gmc. lagjan (cf. Goth. lagjan, O.S. leggian, O.N. leggja, O.E. lecgan, O.Fris. ledza, O.H.G. lecken, M.Du. legghan, Eng. lay, Ger. legen, Du. leggen), suffixed léghros, lair, bed, as Gmc. legraz (cf. O.E. leger, O.H.G. legar, M.Du. leger, Eng. lair), and léghtos, bed, as Lat. lectus; o-grade Greek lóghos, childbirth, place for lying in wait. Cf. Gk. lekhesthai, Toch. lake/leke, Lith. at-lagai, lagaminas, Ltv. lagača, O.C.S. lego, ležati, Russ. ležat’, Pol. leżeć, Gaul. legasit, O.Ir. lige, Welsh gwely, Hitt. laggari.

For the same sense of “that which is set or laid down”, compare IE statútom, Lat. statutum, “statute”, from Lat. statuere, “establish” or statúmos, Lith. istatymas, from istatyti “set up, establish” (from IE stā, stand, set down); also, Ger. Gesetz (from O.H.G. gisatzida, IE kom+sedio, set).

For PIE stā, stand, “place or thing that is standing”, compare common derivatives stlos, stool, as Gmc. stōlaz (cf. Goth. stols, O.N. stoll, O.E. stōl, O.H.G. stuol, O.Fris. stol, Ger. Stuhl), stntiā, stance, stage, stātēiuós, stative, kikromstntiā, circumstance, komstnts, constant, komtrāstā, contrast, di(s)stā, distnts, distant, ekstnts, enstnts, obhstkolos, obhstātrikós, obstetric, supstntiā, substance; stmēn, thread of the warp (a technical term), stamen; stmōn, thread, as Gk. stēmōn; starós, old, “long-standing”, as Slavic staru; zero-grade nasalized extended stanto, stand, as Gmc. standan (cf. O.N. standa, O.E.,O.S., Goth. standan, O.H.G. stantan, Swed. stå, Du. staan, Ger. stehen), as in ndherstanto, stand under, stántkarts (see kar-, hard), standard; suffixed stámnis, stem, as Gmc. stamniz (cf. O.N. stafn, O.S. stamm, O.E. stemn, stefn, O.H.G. stam, Dan. stamme, Swed. stam, Ger. Stamm); státis, place, as Gmc. stadiz (cf. Goth. staþs, O.S. stedi, O.N. staðr, O.E. stede, O.H.G. stat, Swed. stad, Du. stede, Ger. Stadt), Lat. státim, at once, stat, státiōn, a standing still, station, armistátiom, armistice, sāwelstátiom, solstice; Greek státis, standing, stanstill, statós, placed, standing as Gmc. stadaz (cf. O.N. stadhr, Eng. bestead), Gk. statos, as in -stat, statikós, static; dekstanā, make firm, establish, destine, obhstanā, set one’s mind on, persist; státus, manner, position, condition, attitude, with derivatives statū́rā, height, stature, statuo, set up, erect, cause to stand, and superstáts (Lat. superstes), witness, “who stands beyond”; stádhlom, stable, “standing place”, as Lat. stabulum; stadhlís, standing firm, stable, stadhlisko, establish; Greek -statās, -stat, one that causes to stand, a standing; zer0-grade reduplicated sisto, set, place, stop, stand, as Lat. sistere, in komsisto, consist, desisto, desist, eksisto, exist, ensisto, insist, entersistátiom, interstice, persisto, persist, resisto, resist, supsisto, subsist, and from Gk. histanai, with státis, a standing, as in apostátis, katastátis, epistátis, epistmā, knowledge (Gk. ἐπιστήμη), epistāmologíā, supostátis, hypostasis, ikonostátis, wiswostátis, metastátis, próstatā, komsto, establish, komstámn, system; sistos, web, tissue, mast (“that which is set up”), Gk. ἱστός, sistoghŕbhmn, histogram, etc.; compound pórstis, post, “that which stands before” (por-, before, forth, see per), Lat. postis; extended stau, “stout-standing, strong”, as stuā, place, stow, Gmc. stōwō; o-grade Greek stṓuiā, porch, in stōuikós, stoic; suffixed extended stáuros, cross, post, stake (see also stáuros, bull), enstaurā, restore, set upright again, restaurā, restore, rebuild, restaurnts, restaurant; zero-grade extended stū́los, pillar, as in epistū́los, supostū́los, oktōstū́los, peristū́los, prostū́los; steuirós, thick, stout, old, as Skr. sthaviraḥ; suffixed secondary form steu-, suffixed stéurā, steering, as Gmc. steurō, and denominative verb steurio, steer, as Gmc. steurjan (cf. Goth. stiurjan, O.N. styra, O.Fris. stiora, O.E. steran, stieran, O.H.G. stiuren, Du. sturen, Ger. steuern), a verb related to stéuros, large domestic animal, ox, steer (see stáuros), and stéurikos, calf, stirk. Derivatives include Gmc. standan, Lat. stare, Osc. staíet, Umb. stahmei, Gk. histami, Skr. tiṣṭhati, Av. hištaiti, O.Pers. aištata, Pers. istādan, Phryg. eistani, Toch. ṣtām/stām, Arm. stanam, O.Pruss. stacle, Lith. stoti, Ltv. stāt, O.C.S. stati, Russ. stat’, Polish stać, O.Ir. tá, Welsh gwastad, Alb. shtuara; Hitt. išta, Luw. išta-, Lyc. ta-.

II. PIE leg, collect, with derivatives meaning speak, gives Lat. legere, “gather, choose, pluck, read”, Gk. legein, “gather, speak”, from which MIE légtiōn, lection, lesson, legtós, read, legtósā, lecture, legéndā (from a gerundive), leyend, legibhilís, legible, légiōn, komlego, gather, collect, komlégtiōn, collection, dislego, esteem, love, dislegénts, diligent, eklego, elect, eklégtiōn, election, enterlego, choose, enterlegē, perceive, enterlegénts, intelligent, ne(g)lego, neglect, prāilego, prelect, sakrilegós, one who steals sacred things, sakrilégiom, sacrilege (see sak), selego, select, sortilégos, diviner (see ser) sortilégiom, sortilege; légsikom, lexicon, -logos, -logue, -logíā, -logy, katalego, to list, katálogos, catalogue, dialego, discourse, use a dialect, dialogue, dialégtos, dialect, légtis, speech, diction, dislegtíā, dyslexia, eklegtikós, eclectic, etc.; légnom, wood, firewood (“that which is gathered”), as Lat. lignum; lógos, speech, word, reason, as Gk. λόγος, as in lógikā, logic, logikós, logic, logístikā, logistic, análogos, analogous, apologíā, apology, epílogos, epilogue, komlogísmos, syllogism, prólogos, prologue.

For PIE sak, sanctify, gives sakrós, holy, sacred, dedicated, as Lat. sacer (O.Lat. saceres), in sakrā, make sacred, consecrate, sakristános, sacristan, komsakrā, consecrate, eksakrā, execrate; compound sakrodhṓts, priest, “performer of sacred rites” (for dhōt, doer, see dhē), as Lat. sacerdōs, in sakrodhōtālís, sacerdotal; nasalized sankio, make sacred, consacrate, with p.part. sanktós, sacred, as Lat. sancire, sanctus, as in sanktidhakā, sanctify. Compare also Osc. sakrim, Umb. sacra, and (outside Italic) maybe all from IE *saq, bind, restrict, enclose, protect, as IE words for both “oath” and “curse” are regularly words of binding (Tucker).

Also, with the meaning of “holy”, PIE root kwen, gives suffixed zero-grade kwńslom, sacrifice, as Gmc. khunslam (cf. Goth. hunsl, O.N. hunsl, O.E. hūsl, hūsel, Eng. housel), Av. spanyah, O.Pruss. swints, Lith. šventas, Ltv. svinēt, O.C.S. svętŭ, Russ. svjatoj, Polish święty.

PIE ser, line up, gives Lat. serere, “arrange, attach, join (in speech), discuss”, as in sériēs, adsero, assert, desertós, desert, dissertā, dissertate, eksero, put forth, stretch out, ensero, insert; sérmōn, speech, discourse, as Lat. sermō; sŕtis, lot, fortune (perhaps from the lining up of lots before drawing), as in srtiásios, sorcerer, komsŕtis, consort (“who has the same fortune”); sérā, lock, bolt, bar, (perhaps “that which aligns”).

III. For PIE dhē, set, put, place, gives some common terms referring to “(divine) law, right, fate” (cf. Eng. doom), cf. Gmc. dōn (cf. Goth. gadeths, O.N. dalidun, O.E. dōn, O.H.G. tuon, Eng. do, Ger. tun) Lat. faciō, Osc. faciiad, Umb. feitu, O.Gk. tithēmi, Skr. dadhāti, Av. daðaiti, O.Pers. adadā, Phryg. dak-, Thrac. didzos, Toch. täs/täs, Arm. ed, Lith. dėti, Ltv. dēt, Russ. det’; delat’, Polish dziać; działać, Gaul. dede, Welsh dall, Alb. ndonj, Hitt. dai, Lyc. ta-. Common MIE words include dhētós, set down, created, as O.Ira. datah; suffixed dhḗtis, “thing laid down or done”, law, deed, Gmc. dēdiz (cf. O.E. dǣd, Eng. deed); dhḗkā, receptacle, Gk. θήκη, Eng. theca, as in apodhḗkā, “store, warehouse”, then extended as pharmacy (and also to Spa. bodega and Fr. boutique, both left as MIE loans), as in apodhēkrios, apothecary, apodhḗkiom, apothecium, bubliodhḗkā (from Greek loan búbliom, book, from the Greek name of the Phoenician city Gubla, Búblos or Cúblos, Gk. βύβλος, as in n.pl. Búblia, bible, lit. “the books”), library, ambhidhḗkiom, amphithecium, endodhḗkiom, endothecium, peridhḗkiom, perithecium; o-grade dhō, do, as Gmc. dōn; suffixed and prefixed apdhṓmēn, belly, abdomen, Lat. abdōmen, perhaps “part placed away, concealed part”; suffixed dhṓmos, judgement, “thing set or put down”, and dhōmio, judge, as Gmc. dōmaz, dōmjan (cf. Goth. dōms, O.N. dōmr, O.E. dōm, dēman, Eng. doom, deem; also into Russ. Duma, from a Germanic source), also as abstract suffix -dhṓmos indicating state, condition, power (cf. O.N. -domr, O.E. -dom, Du. -dømme, Eng. -dom); zero-grade komdho, put together, establish, preserve, as Lat. condere, in apskomdho, abscond, rekomdhitós, recondite, and suffixed komdhio, season, flavor, as Lat. condīre, in komdhiméntom, condiment; suffixed zero-grade form dhakio, do, make, as Lat. facere, usually found as Latin combining form -dhaks, Lat. -fex, “maker”, -dhakiom, Lat. -ficium, “a making”, both Eng. -fice, and -dhakā, Lat. -ficāre, -dhakio, Lat. -facere, both normally Eng. -fy; some common words include -dhakients, -facient, dháktos, fact, dháktiōn, faction, dhaktṓr, factor, dhaktoríā, factory, addhaktā, affect, addháktiōn, affection, amplidhakā, aplify, artidháktos, artifact, artidhákiom, artifice, dwēiatidhakós, beatific, komdháktiōn, confection, komdhaktionā, confect, dedhakio, fail, dedhakiénts, deficient, nisdodhakio, nidify (see nisdos, nest), aididhakā, edify (from Lat. aidis, a building), aididhákiom, edifice, ekdháktos, effect, endhaktā, infect, jowostidhakā, justify, malidhaktṓr, malefactor, manudhaktósā, manufacture (see mánus, hand), modidhakā, modify, gnotidhakā, notify, opidháks, workman (see op, work), opidhákiom, service, duty, business, occupation, performance of work, (from Lat. opificium, later officium), op(i)dhaknā, office, (cf. Lat. opificina, later officina), perdhakio, finish, perdhaktós, perfect, ōsidhákiom, orifice (see ōs, mouth), ekdhakio, accomplish, ekdháktos, effect, ekdhakiénts, efficient, ekdhakks, efficacious, endhaktā, infect, pontidháks, pontifex (see IE pent), prāidháktos, prefect, prodháktos, profit, prodhakiénts, profiting (Eng. “proficient”), putridhakio, putrify (see pu, rot), qālidhakā, qualify (see qo), pertidhakā, petrify, rāridhakā, rarefy (from borrowing rārós, rare, Lat. rārus), regtidhakā, rectify (see regtós, right, straight), redhakio, feed, refect, redhaktóriom, refectory, reudhidhakio, redden, reudhidhakiénts, rubefacient, (see reudhós, red), sakridhakā, sacrify, satisdhakio, satisfy (see sā), supdhakio, suffice, supdhakiénts, sufficient; from Lat. dhákiēs, shape, face (“form imposed on something”), are dhakiālís, facial, superdhákiēs, surface; further suffixed dhaklís, feasible, easy, as Lat. facilis (from O.Lat. facul), as in dháklitā, ability, power, science, also noun dhaklís, with the sense of faculty, facilities, disdháklitā, difficulty; dhās, divine law, right, as Lat. fas; reduplicated Greek dhidho, put, Gk. tithenai, as in dhátis, a placing, Gk. θέσις, also thesis, and adjective dhatós, placed, as in dhatikós, thetic, anadhámn, anathema, antidhátis, diadhasis, epidhátos, supodhakā, hypothecate, supodhátis, hypothesis, metadhátis, par(a)endhidho, insert, parendhátis, parenthesis, prosdhátis, prothesis, prosthesis, komdhátis, synthesis; dhámn, “thing placed,” proposition, theme, Gk. θέμα, as in dhamntikós, thematic; reduplicated Sanskrit dhedhē, place, Skr. dadhāti, p.part. dhatós, placed, Skr. -hita-.

In Proto-Indo-European, another common verb meaning “make” existed, qer, as Skr. karoti, “he makes”, as in Sómsqrtom, Sanskrit, Skr. saṃskṛtam; also, common derivatives Greek qéras, monster, or dissimilated qélōr, monster, peloria; also, suffixed qérmn, act, deed, as Skr. karma.

III.1. Indo-European op, work, produce in abundance, include ópōs, work, Lat. opus, with denominative verb opesā, operate, as Lat. operārī, as in óperā, opera (affected by Lat. rhotacism), komopesā, manuopesā, maneuver; openentós, rich, wealthy, opulent, as Lat. dissim. opulentus, ópnis, all (from “abundant”), Lat. omnis, as in ópnibhos, omnibus; optmós, best (“wealthiest”), as Lat. optimus; komópiā, profusion, plenty, also copy, as in komopionts(ós), copious.

III.2. For PIE pent, tread, go, compare Gmc. finthan, “come upon, discover” (cf. Goth. finþan, O.N. finna, O.E. find, O.S. findan, M.Du. vinden, Ger. finden); suffixed póntis, way, passage, found in Lat. pōns, “bridge” (earliest mening of “way, passage” preserved in priestly title pontidháks, pontifex, “he who prepares the way”), also found in Russ. путь, “path, way” (as in ‘sputnik’, fellow traveler, which could be translated as MIE “kompontinikós”); zero-grade pnto, tread, walk, in peripntetikós, peripatetic, Gk. περιπατητικός; suffixed pńtos, from Iranian (cf. Av. pɑntɑ (nominative), pɑθɑ (genitive) way, Old Persian pɑthi-), into W.Gmc. through Scythian, as Gmc. patha- (cf. O.E. paþ, pæþ, Fris. path, M.Du. pat, O.H.G. pfad, Eng. path, Du. pad, Ger. Pfad).

III.3. For PIE pu, rot, decay (from older *puh, it becomes pū, puw- before vowels), compare pūlós, rotten, filthy, as Gmc. fūlaz (cf. Goth. füls, O.N fúll, O.E. fūl, O.H.G. fül, M.Du. voul, Ger. faul), pūtrís, rotten, as Lat. puter, púwos/m, pus, as Lat. pūs, Gk. puon, puos, also in enpuwo, suppurate, as in enpuwémn, empyema.

III.4. Indo-European root man-, hand, gives Lat. mánus, with derivatives manudiā, manage (from V.Lat. manidiāre, into O.It. maneggiare, Fr. manager, Eng. manage, Spa. manejar, etc.), manuālís, manual, manúdhriom, handle, manubrium (from instr. suffix -dhro-), manteno, maintain (see ten), manikóisā (from Lat. cura, Archaic Latin koisa, “cure”), manighestós, caught in the act, blatant, obvious, (see chedh), manuskreibhtós, handwritten (see skreibh), manuskréibhtom, manuscript; manúpolos, handful (for -polos, full, see pel), manupolā, manipulate; mankós, maimed in the hand; mankáps, “he who takes by the hand” purchaser, (-ceps, agential suffix, “taker”; see kap), in ekmankapā, emancipate; mandā, “to put into someone’s hand,” entrust, order, from Latin compound mandāre, (-dare, “to give”, see dō, although possibly from “put”, see dhē), mandtom, mandate, kommandā, command, entrust, commend, kommándos, commando, komtrāmandā, countermand, demandā, demand, rekommandā, recommend.

III.4.a. PIE ten, stretch, gives derivatives suffixed tendo, stretch, extend, as Lat. tendere, in adtendo, attend, komtendo, contend, detendo, detent, distendo, distend, ekstendo, extend, entendo, intend, prāitendo, pretend, suptendo, subtend; portendo, portend (“to stretch out before”, a technical term in augury, “to indicate, presage, foretell”); suffixed tenio, Gk. teinein, with o-grade ton- and zero-grade tńtis, a stretching, tension, intensity, as in katatóniā, entńtis, entasis, epitńtis, epitasis, supotenióntiā (Gk. ὑποτείνουσα), hypotenusa, protńtis, protasis, komtonikós, syntonic, etc.; reduplicated zero-grade tétnos [‘te-tn̥-os], stiff, rigid, as Gk. τέτανος, also tetanus; suffixed téntrom, loom, as Skr. tantram (cf. Pers. tār); stative tenē, hold, keep, maintain (from “cause to endure or continue, hold on to”), as lat. tenēre, in tenks, tenacious, tenor, apstenē, abstain, komtenē, contain, komtenuós, continuous, komtenuā, continue, detenē, detain, entertenē, entertain, tenánts, holder, tenant, lieutenant, manutenē, maintain, obhtenē, obtain, pertenē, pertain, pertenks, pertinacious, retenē, retain, suptenē, sustain; derivatives meaning “stretched”, hence “thin” include tnús, as Gmc. thunniz, thunwiz (cf. O.N. þunnr, O.E. thynne, W.Fris. ten, O.H.G. dunni, M.L.G. dunne, Du. dun, Ger. dünn, Eng. thin), tenús, thin, rare, fine, as Lat. tenuis, in adtenuā, attenuate, ekstenuā, extenuate, tenrós, tender, delicate, as Lat. tener, (en)tenresko, touch, intenerate; derivatives meaning “something stretched or capable of being stretched, a string” include Greek ténōn, tendon, o-grade suffixed tónos, string, hence sound, pitch, tone, and suffixed zero-grade tńia, band, ribbon.

III.4.b. PIE chedh, ask, pray, gives suffixed chedhio, pray, entreat, Gmc. bidjan (cf. O.E. biddan, Ger. bitten, O.E. bid), chédhom, entreaty, as Gmc. bidam (cf. Goth. bida, O.E. bedu, gebed, O.H.G. beta, M.Du. bede, Eng. bead, Ger. bitte); chestós (<*chedhto-), into Lat. -festus, giving ṇchestós, hostile (from “inexorable”), manuchestós, manifest, caught in the act.

Some assign Lat. -festus to a common PIE dhers, dare, be bold, as Gmc. derzan (cf. Goth. gadars, O.E. dearr, durran, Eng. dare), Gk. thrasys, Skt. dadharśa, O.Pers. darš-, O.C.S. druzate.

III.4.c. PIE skreibh, cut, separate, sift (an extension of sker), used as scratch, incise, hence write, as Lat. scrībere, giving skreibhtós, written, skréibhā, scribe, skréibhtos, script, skreibhtóriom, scriptorium, skréibhtā/skreibhtósā, scripture, adskreibho, ascribe, kikromskreibho, circumscribe, komskreibho, conscript, deskreibho, describe, enskreibho, inscribe, prāiskreibho, prescribe, proskreibho, proscribe, reskreibho, rescript, supskreibho, subscribe, superskreibho, superscribe, tran(s)skreibho, transcribe; from Greek is skréibhos, scratching, sketch, pencil, as Eng. scarify.

III.5. Common PIE sā, satisfy, as zero-grade satós, sated, satiated, as Gmc. sathaz (cf. Goth. saþs, O.N. saðr, O.H.G. sat, M.Du. sat, Eng. sad, Ger. satt, Du. zad), verb satio, satisfy, sate, as Gmc. sathōn (cf. O.E. sadian, Eng. sate); suffixed zero-grade saturós, full (of food), sated, as Lat. satur, in sáturā, satire, Lat. satyra, and saturā, saturate, Lat. saturā; satís, enough, sufficient, as Lat. satis, satiā, satisdhakio, satisfy, satiatā, satiety; sadrós, thick, as Gk. hadros.

135. Indo-European root (s)teu, push, stick, knock, beat, is behind suffixed studo, be diligent (“be pressing forward”), Lat. studere, giving stúdiom, eagerness, then “study, application”, as in studiā, study, M.L. studiāre; other derivatives include extended (s)teupo, push, stick, knock, beat, as Gk. typtein, typos, Skt. tup-, tundate, Goth. stautan “push”, O.N. stuttr, and common Germanic steupós, high, lofty, as Gmc. staupaz (cf. O.E. steap, O.Fris. stap, M.H.G. stouf, Eng. steep).

136. PIE sūs, pig, swine, and derivatives swnos/-m, give Gmc. swinam (cf. Goth. swein, O.S., O.Fris. M.L.G., O.H.G.,O.E. swin, M.Du. swijn, Du. zwijn, Ger. Schwein), súkā, sugō (cf. O.N. sýr, O.E. sū, O.S., O.H.G. su, Du. zeug, Eng. sow, Ger. Sau), cf. Lat. sūs, suinus, Umb. sif, Gk. hūs, Skr. sūkara, Av. hū, Toch. -/suwo, Ltv. sivēns, O.C.S. svinija Russ. svin, Polish świnia, Celtic sukko (cf. O.Ir. socc, Welsh hwch, O.E. hogg), Alb. thi.

137. PIE kákkā, shit, excrement, and verb shit, cf. Ger. Kacke, Lat. cacāre, Gk. kakkaō, Pers. keke(h), Arm. k’akor, Lith. kaka, Russ. kakat’, O.Ir. cacc, Welsh cach.

Other words for “shit” are Gmc. skitan, from PIE skeit-, “split, divide, separate”, and Lat. ekskreméntom, from ekskerno, “separate”, therefore both revealing an older notion of a “separation” of the body.

For IE krei, sieve, discriminate, distinguish, compare kéidhrom/kéitrom, sieve, as Gmc. khrithram (cf. O.E. hridder, hriddel, Eng. riddle), Lat. crībrum; suffixed kréimēn, judgment, crime, as Lat. crīmen, as in kreimenālís, criminal, rekreimenā, recriminate, diskréimēn, distinction, diskreimenā, discriminate; suffixed zero-grade krino, sift, separate, decide, as metathesized Lat. cernere, in p.part kritós, (Lat. *kirtos) certain, komkrino, concern, komkrítos, concert, dekrítos, decree, diskrino, discern, diskomkritā, disconcert, ekskrino, separate, ekskritós, separated, purged, ekskritā, excrete, ekskriméntom, excrement, krititúdōn, certitude, ṇkrititúdōn, incertitude, swekrino, secern, swekritā, secret, swekrítarios, secretary; suffixed zero-grade krinio, separate, decide, judge, explain, as Gk. κρίνειν, in krítis, crisis, kritikós, critic, kritḗriōn, criterion, diakritikós, diacritic, endokrinós, endocrine, eksokrinós, exocrine, supokritíā, hypocrisy, krítā, judge, saimntokrítā, hematocrit (MIE saimn-, saimnto-, blood, are loan words from Gk. αἷμα, -ατος, probably MIE saimn, cf. O.Ind. is, O.H.G. seim, Ger. Honigseim).

a. For Indo-European méigh, urinate, sprinkle, hence “mist, fine rain”, also “mix” cf. Gmc. mihstu- (cf. Goth. maihstus, O.N. míga, O.E. miscian, mistel, O.H.G. miskan, Du.dial. mieselen, Swed. mäsk, Ger. mischen), maisk- (cf. O.E. māsc, meox Swed. mäsk, Ger. Maisc, Eng. mash), Lat. mingere, meiere, Gk. omeikhein, Skr. mehati, Av. maēsati, Kurd. méz, Gk. omeihein, Toch. -/miśo, Arm. mizel, Lith. myžti, Ltv. mīzt, Russ. mezga, Pol. miazga. Latin micturire comes from suffixed míghtus, in mightusio, want to urinate, micturate.

b. PIE wem, vomit, gives O.N. váma, Lat. vomere, Gk. emeso, Skr. vamiti, Av. vam, Pers. vātāk, O.Pruss. wynis, Lith. vemti, Ltv. vemt.

c. PIE sp(j)ew, spit, gave Gmc. spjewan (cf. Goth. spiewan, ON spýja, O.E. spiwan, O.H.G. spīwan, Eng. spew, Ger. speien), Lat. spuere, Gk. ptuein, Skr. ṣṭīvati, Av. spāma, Pers. tuf, Arm. t’us, Lith. spjauti, Ltv. spļaut, O.C.S. pljujǫ, Russ. pljuju, Pol. pluć, Osset. thu,

d. kwas, cough, gave Gmc. hwostan (cf. O.N. hósta, O.E. hwōsta, O.H.G. huosto, Ger. Husten, Skr. kasāte, Toch. /kosi, Lith. kosėti, Ltv. kāsēt, Russ. kašljat’, Pol. kaszleć, Ir. casachdach, Welsh pas, Alb. kollje, Kam. kâsa.

138. The name of the Rhine comes from Ger. Rhine, in turn from M.H.G. Rin, ultimately from an IE dialect, originally lit.“that which flows”, from PIE rej, flow, run, as Gk. rhein, with derivatives including suffixed rinuo, run, as Gmc. rinwan, rinnan, (cf. Goth., O.S., O.E. O.H.G., rinnan, O.N. rinna, M.Du. runnen, Ger. rinnen), Gmc. ril- (cf. Dutch ril, Low German rille, Eng. rill); suffixed réiwos, stream, river, as Lat. rīuus.

139. IE albhós, white, gives derivatives Lat. albus, Umb. alfu, Gk. alphos, Russ. lebed’, Lyc. alb-. Other derivatives are álbhos, álbhis, “white thing”, elf (from “white ghostly apparition”), as Gmc. albaz, albiz (cf. O.N. alfr Eng. ælf, Gm. Alps, Eng. elf, also in Welsh elfydd, and in Álbherōn, Oberon from a Germanic source akin to O.H.G. Alberich, into O.Fr. Auberon), and fem. álbhiniā, elfin; Latin derivatives include albhinós, albino, álbhom, album, álbhomōn, albhómonā, albumen.

MIE Albhániā, Albania, comes from M.Gk. Αλβανία. Although the name of Albania in its language is different (Alb. Shqipëria, “Land of the eagles”), it appeared only after the Turkish invasions, and the name Albhániā is internationally used today. Probably the terms for Albanian speakers of Greece and Italy (as Arvanite, Arber, Arbëreshë, etc.) are also derived from this older noun.

A proper IE word for “eagle” is órōn (from older *h₃oron, cf. Hitt. ḫarā-), as Gmc. arnuz (cf. Goth. ara, O.N. ari, O.E. earn, O.H.G. arn, Eng. erne, Ger. Aar), órnis, bird, as in Gk. ornitho-, and other derivatives from PIE root or-, large bird, cf. Gk. orneon, Arm. arciv, Old Prussian arelis, Lith. erelis, Ltv. ērglis, Russ. orel, Pol. orzeł, O.Ir. irar, Welsh eryr, Alb. orë.

Álbhā, Scotland, is a Scots- and Irish-Gaelic name for Scotland, as well as Álbhiōn, Albion, which designates sometimes the entire island of Great Britain and sometimes the country of England. The “white” is generally held to refer to the cliffs of white chalk around the English town of Dover, in the south of Great Britain.

Common MIE names are Skotts, Scot, Skott(isk)léndhom, Scotland, and Germanic Skottiskós, scottish.

For “white, shining”, compare also PIE argós, argís, as Goth. unairkns, O.E.. eorcnan(stān), Lat. arguō, Osc. aragetud, Gk. arguros, erchan, Skr. arjuna, Av. arəzah, Phryg. arg, Thrac. arzas, Toch. ārki/arkwi, Arm. arcat’, Gaul. Argentoratum, O.Ir. argat, Welsh ariant, Hitt. ḫarkiš. Common derivatives include Latin argéntom, silver, argent, argentinā, argentine; Greek argil(l)os, white clay, argil, argúros, silver, arginouís, brilliant, bright-shining; IE argús, brilliant, clear, in argúio, make clear, demonstrate, argue, Lat. arguere; suffixed argrós, white, Gk. argos.

140. Germanic loan words from Frankish might be translated (because of Grimm’s Law, already seen) as MIE prangós, Gmc. *frankaz, “frank”, and Prángos, Gmc. *Frankaz, “freeman, a Frank”, (cf. O.E. Franca, O.H.G. Franko, M.L. Franc, Eng. Frank, Lith. franču, etc.), and Prángiskos, Gmc. *Frankiskaz, “Frankish” (cf. O.E. frencisc, Eng. French, Swe. Fransk, Du. frans, etc.), giving also IE Prángiā, Gmc. *Frankjo-, France (as Fr. France, and not ~~Prangā~~, which would have given Fr. ~~Franche~~), and Prangiakós, or maybe secondary Prangosiskós (or Prangosistós), French, cf. Ger. Französisch, Rom. franţuzeşte, Russ. французский, Pol. francuski, etc. – the common Romance adj. from Lat. Francensis (cf. Fr. français, It. franzese, Spa. francés, etc.), *prangénts(is)? seems too a secondary formation to be used in PIE.

Other country names in MIE:

a. Spain: Phoenician/Punic ‘Î-šəpānîm “the isle of hares” (where initial “hi” is a definite article). The Phoenician settlers found hares in abundance, and they named the land in their Canaanite dialect. The Latin-speaking Romans adapted the name as Hispania. The Latin name was altered among the Romance languages through O.Fr. Espagne and espaignol (through M.L. Hispaniolus), and entered English from Norman French, hence MIE Hispániā, Hispania, and Hispanós, Hispaniard, Hispanikós, Hispanic, and modern European words Spániā, Spain, Spanós, Spanish, cf. Lat. hispānus, Gk. ispanós.

b. Greece: From Gk. Γραικοί, Lat. Graecus (claimed by Aristotle to refer to the name of the original people of Epirus) is the general international name, hence MIE Graikós, Greek, Gráikiā, Greece. However, the proper old name is Sewlēnós, Hellene, Greek, (possibly from “luminary, bright”), as Gk.῞Ελληνος, Sewlēnikós, Hellenic, and Sewlás or Sewládā, Hellas/Ellas/Ellada, Greece, a word possibly related to Gk. έλ- (hel-) “sun, bright, shiny”, (cf. Gk. helios, “sun”, from IE sāwel), in turn possibly related to the tribe of the Selloi, Gk. Σελλοί.

c. Denmark: The Dhánes, Danes (Lat. Dani), were the dominant people of the region since ancient times. The origin of their tribal name is unknown, although it could be a Latin borrowing from a Germanic name, and as Gmc. dan- is IE dhen-, it is possibly related to PIE dhen, “low, flat”, in reference to the lowland nature of most of the country (cf. etymology of Poland and Netherland). Dhan(ēm)márg(ā), Denmark, (“the March of the low landers”), with Gmc. gen. -ēm, is then from compound Dhan (in gen.pl) + marg, boundary, border.

PIE marg, boundary, border, gives derivatives marg(s), Gmc. mark-, “boundary, border territory”, also “landmark, boundary marker”, and “mark in general” (and in particular a mark on a metal currency bar, hence a unit of currency), cf. Goth. marka, O.N. mörk, O.E. mearc, merc, O.Fr. marc, O.Fris. merke, Du. merk, Ger. Mark, Sca. mark, and margio, note, notice, Gmc. markjan (cf. O.N. merki, O.H.G. merken, O.E. mearcian), in remargio, remark; also, derived from Germanic, compare fem. márgā, “mark out, mark”, Gmc. markōn (cf. Frank. markōn, O.It. marcare), and “border country, march, marc”, Gmc. markō (cf. O.Fr. marche, M.Lat. marca), and. Other derivatives include márgōn, border, edge, margin, as Lat. margo, in (ek)margonā, emarginate; Celtic variant mrógis, territory, land, mrógos, district, (cf. O.Ir. mruig, bruig, Welsh bro, Corn. bro, Bret. broin), in compound from British Celtic Kommrógos, Welsh, “fellow countryman” (cf. Welsh Cymro), as in Kommrógiā, Wales, Welsh Cymru.

d. Rōmaníā, Romania, comes from Rṓmā, Rome, hence the same MIE adjective Rōmānós for (ancient and modern) Roman and Romanian people (cf. Rom. români), although modern borrowings MIE Rōmāniós/Rōmānianós and Rōmānistós (cf. common endings Rom. -eană, -eşte) could be used for Romanian. Older variants of the name were written with -u, as Eng. Rumania (probably a French-influenced spelling, from Fr. Roumanie), as Rom. rumâni.

141. From PIE pej, be fat, swell, are derivatives zero-grade ptuitā, moisture exuded from trees, gum, phlegm, as in pītuitáriā, pituitary; pnus, pine tree (yielding a resin), as Lat. pīnus, in pniā, pine, piña, pniōn, piñon; suffixed pwōn, fat, as Skr. pvan, Gk. pīōn; suffixed pīweriós, fat, fertile, as Skr. pvarī, Gk. peira, in Pweriā, “fertile region”, cf. O.Ir. Īweriū (Ir. Eire, M.Welsh Iwerydd, Iwerddon, also in O.E. Īras, Eng. Ire[land]), Gk. Pīeriā (a region of Macedonia, cf. Eng. Pierian Spring); extended o-grade póitos, plump, fat, in verb póitio, fatten, Gmc. faitjan, p.part. poiditós, fattened, giving póiditos, fat, as Gmc. faitithaz (cf. O.N. feitr, O.E. fætt, Du. vet, Ger. fett). Compare also Lat. pinguis (a mix of Lat. finguis, Gk. pakhus, and Lat. opīmus, Gk. pimelh). Gk. pitys, Skr. pituh, pitudaruh, payate, Lith. pienas.

“Pine tree” in PIE is gelunā, found in O.N. giolnar, Gk. kheilos, Arm. jelun/čelun, Lith. pušis, Ir. giúis.

142. IE reconstructed gńingos, “leader of the people”, king, as Gmc. kuningaz (cf. O.N. konungr, O.H.G. kuning, O.E. cyning, Du. koning, Dan. konge, Ger. könig), is related to O.E. cynn, “family, race”, Mod. Eng. kin (see gen); O.C.S. kunegu “prince” (cf. Rus. knyaz, Boh. knez), Lith. kunigas “clergyman”, and Finnish kuningas “king”, are deemed loans from Germanic. MIE neuter gningodhṓmos is a loan translation of Eng. king-dom, Du. konge-dømme (see dhē), as gningorḗgiom is for Gmc. kuninga-rikjam (cf. Du. koninkrijk, Ger. Königreich, Da. kongerige, Swe. kungarike, Nor. kongerike). However, note that the proper O.E. word for “kingdom” was simply rīce, as PIE and MIE rḗgiom.

143. The international name Montinécros, from necrós móntis, black mount(ain) (after the appearance of Mount Lovćen or its dark coniferous forests), was given by Italian conquerors, possibly from Venice. The term was loan-translated in Slavic (substituting their older name, Sla. Zeta) as Krsn Cor (or Krsnocóriā), from krsnós, black (cf. Sla. čurnu, O.Pruss. kirsnan, Lith. kirsnas, Skr. kṛsna, from PIE kers), and cor, mount(ain).

PIE nominal root kers, heat, fire, gives kértā, hearth, “burning place”, as Gmc. kherthō (cf. O.E. heorð, O.Fris. herth, M.Du. hert, Ger. Herd); zero-grade kŕdhōn, charcoal, ember, carbon, as Lat carbō (in light of Gmc. kherth-, O.Ind. kūḍayāti), extended kremā, burn, cremate, as Lat. cremāre; sufixed extended Greek kerámos, potter’s clay, earthenware, as in keramikós, ceramic; and in colour (apart from krsnós, black), compare extended verb krāso, color, as Russ. krasit’.

144. MIE Swéones (maybe orig. Swíonis), Suiones, from Swéōn, swede, is a proper reconstruction for Gmc. swioniz, (cf. O.E. Sweon, Sweonas); in O.N. svear/svíar, the n disappeared in the plural noun, still preserved in the old adjective Swe. svensk, MIE Sweoniskós, swedish. The name became part of a compound, MIE Sweotéutā, “The Suione People” (see teutā), as O.N Svíþjóð, O.E. Sweoðeod (cf. Ice. Svíþjóð, Eng. Sweden, Ger. Schweden, Du. Zweden). The only Germanic nation having a similar naming was the Goths, who from the name Gmc. Gutans (cf. Suehans, “Swedes”) created the form gut-þiuda. The name Swethiuth and its different forms gave rise to the different IE names for Sweden (cf. M.Lat. Suetia, Gk. Σουηδία, Hi. Svī.dan, Pers. Sued, Lith. Švedija, Russ. Швеция, Pol. Szwecja, even Maltese Svezja, Heb. Shvedia, Jap. Suwēden, Kor. Seuweden, etc). Another modern (Scandinavian) compound comes from MIE Sweorḗgiom, “The Realm of the Swedes”, cf. O.N. Svíariki, O.E. Swēorīċe (cf. Swe. Sverige, Da.,Nor. Sverige, Fae. Svøríki, Ltv. Zviedrija, Saami Sveerje, Svierik). Another Germanic compound that has not survived into modern times is Sweoléndhom, “The Land of the Swedes”, as O.E. Swēoland.

145. Germanic Finnléndhom, “Land of the Finns”, comes from the Norsemen’s name for the Sami or Lapps, Finn or Finnós, Finn (cf. O.N. finnr, O.E. finnas). The word may be related to Eng. fen or find.

English “fen” is probably from an original IE pánio-, “marsh, dirt, mud”, as Gmc. fanja- (cf. Goth. fani, O.E. fen, fenn, O.Fris. fenne, Du. veen, Ger. Fenn), borrowed in It., Sp. fango, O.Fr. fanc, Fr. fange; compare also Skr. pankaḥ, O.Prus. pannean, Gaul. anam.

146. A PIE base per-, traffic in, sell (“hand over, distribute”, see per), is behind enterpreso, negotiate, as in enterpréts, go-between, negotiator, interpret, verb enterpretā, interpret; prétiom, price, Lat. pretium, in pretiōsós, precious, adpretiā, appreciate, depretiā, depreciate; perno, sell, as in porn, prostitute, as Gk. πορνη, in pornogrbhós (or abb. pornós), pornographic, porno.

Other meanings of IE base per- (from per, see also verb pero), are try, risk (from “lead over”, “press forward”), and strike. Compare from the first meaning extended pḗros, danger, as Gmc. fēraz (cf. O.S.,O.N. fár, O.E. fǣr, Ger. Gefahr Eng. fear); suffixed pertlom, danger, peril, as Lat. perīclum; suffixed and prefixed eksperio, try, learn by trying, as in ekspertós, tried, ekspértos, experienced, expert, eksperiméntom, experiment, eksperiéntiā, experience; périā, trial, attempt, as Gk. πειρα, in peritā, pirate, as Gk. πειρατής, emperiākós, empiric. From the second meaning is extended Latin pre-m-, pre-s, as in premo, press, presós, pressed, giving présiōn, pressure, depremo, depress, deprésiōn, depression, ekspremo, express, ekspresós, express, eksprésos, espresso, enpremo, impress, enpremtós/enpresós, impressed, enpremtā, imprint, obhpremo, oppress, obhpresós, oppressed, repremo, repress, represós, repressed, reprementā, reprimand, suppremo, suppress, suppresós, suppressed.

147. Latin eksáliom, exilium, “banishment”, comes from eksál, Lat. exul, “banished person”, from eks, “away”, and PIE al, “wander”, as in Gk. alasthai.

148. MIE parénts, father or mother, ancestor, as Lat parens, comes from verb paro, bring forth, give birth to, produce, Lat. parere, from PIE base per-, bring forth, as in parā, make ready, in prāiparā, prepare; for IE derivatives referring to young animals, cf. O.E. fearr, “bull”, O.H.G. farro, Ger. Farre, Gk. poris, Skr. prthukaḥ, Lith. pariu, Cz. spratek.

149. Indo-European ówis (older *h₂owi-), sheep, gives Gmc. awiz (cf. Goth. awēþi, ON ǽr, O.E. ēow, O.H.G. ouwi, M.Du. ooge, Eng. ewe, Ger. Aue), Lat. ovis, Umbrian uvem, Gk. οις, Skr. avika, Toch. āuw, Arm. hoviv, O. Pruss. awins, Lith. avis, Ltv. avs, Russ. овца, Polish owca, O.Ir. ói, Welsh ewig, Hitt. ḫawi, Luw. ḫāwi-, Lyc. xabwa. A common Latin derivative is owinós, ovine.

150. PIE root pek, pluck, gives pék, cattle; compare Gmc. fehu (Goth. faihu, O.N. fé, O.E. feoh, O.H.G. fihu, Eng. fee, fellow, Ger. Vieh), Lat. pecu, pecū, Gk. πεκω, Skr. paśu, Av. pasu, Arm. asr, O. Pruss. pecku, Lith. pekus, Alb. pilë. Common derivatives include pékudom, feudal estate, feud, from Med.Lat. feudum, from Gmc. fehu; pekū́niā, property, wealth, as Lat. pecunia, gives pekūniāsiós, pecuniary, ṇpekūniós, impecunious; and suffixed pekū́liom, riches in cattle, private property, gives pekūliālís, peculiar, and pekulā, peculate.

151. PIE egnís, fire, referred to fire as a living force (compare áqā-após), different to the inanimate substance pwr, and gave known IE derivatives as Lat. ignis, Skr. agni, Lith. ugnis, Ltv. uguns, OCS ognĭ, Russ. огонь, Polish ogień, Alb. enjte; Hitt. agniš. However, in Modern Indo-European (due to the disappearance of such old distinctions) both words have usually come to mean the same, with many dialects choosing only one as the main word for a general “fire”.

152. Proto-Indo-European bhrūs, brow, is found in Ger. brū- (O.E. brū, Nor. brún, Ger. Braue, Eng. brow), Gk. οφρύς, Skr. bhrus, Pers. abru, Toch. pärwāṃ/pärwāne, O.Pruss. wubri, Lith. bruvis, O.C.S. bruvi, Russ. бровь, Polish brew, Cel. briva (>bhrḗwā, bridge), O.Ir. bru; Ancient Macedonian abroutes.

153. For Indo-European kerd, heart (old inflection Nom. kerds, Acc. kérdm, Gen. krdós, cf. Anatolian kart-s), compare suffixed kérdōn, as Gmc. khertōn (cf. Goth. hairto, O.S. herta, O.N. hjarta, O.E. heorte, O.H.G. herza, Du. hart, Eng. heart, Ger. Herz), Lat. cor (stem cord-, from krd), Gk. kardia, Skr. hṛdaya, Av. zərədā, Arm. sird/sirt, O. Pruss. seyr, Lith. širdis, Ltv. sirds, O.C.S. srĭdĭce, sreda, Russ. serdce, Pol. serce, O.Ir. cride, Welsh craidd, Bret. kreiz, Kamviri zâra. Common MIE words are from Latin zero-grade krdiālís, cordial, adkrdā, accord, komkrdā, concord, diskrdā, discord, rekrdā, record; further suffixed zero-grade Greek kŕdiā, heart, also stomach, orifice, gives krdiakós, cardiac, endokŕdiom, endocardium, epikŕdiom, epicardium, megalokŕdiā, perikŕdiom, pericardium; from compound kred-dha-, “to place trust” (an old religious term, from zero-grade of dhē, do, place), is kreddho, believe (a separable verb) as Lat. credere (cf. Fr. croire, It. credere, Spa. creer, Pt. acreditar, crêr, Rom. crede), in kredhénts, credence, kredhibhilís, credible, krédhitos, credit, kred dhō, “I believe”, credo, kredholós, credulous.

West Germanic “believe” comes from IE komloubhio, “to hold dear”, esteem, trust, as Gmc. galaubjan (cf. O.E. geleafa, ge-lēfan, gelyfan, Du. geloven, Ger. glauben), from PIE verbal root leubh, care, desire, love, as L. lubet (later libet), Osc. loufit, Skt. lubhyati, Lith. liaupsė, O.C.S. ljubŭ, Pol. lubić, Alb. lum. Common derivatives include leubhós, dear, beloved, as Gmc. leubaz (cf. Goth. liufs, O.N. ljutr, O.E. leof, O.Fris. liaf, O.H.G. liob, Eng. lief, Ger. lieb), also o-grade lóubhā, permission, as Gmc. laubō (cf. O.E. leafe, Eng. leave); from zero-grade lúbhā, love, is Gmc. lubō (cf. Goth. liufs, O.N. ljúfr, O.E. lufu, O.Fris. liaf, O.H.G. liob, Eng. love, not found elsewhere as a noun, except O.H.G. luba, Ger. Liebe); also zero-grade stative lubhē, be dear, be pleasing, as Lat. libēre (O.Lat. lubēre); also, lúbhīdōn, pleasure, desire, as Lat. libīdō.

North Germanic verb “tro” comes from IE deru, faith, trust, as Eng. trust.

Slavic verb for believe, werio, comes from werós, true, cf. Russ. верить, Pol., wierzyć, Sr.-Cr. vjerovati, Slo. verovati, etc.

154. IE kwōn, dog, gives derivatives Gmc. khundas (from kun(t)ós, originally Genitive, cf. Goth. hunds, O.E. hund, O.N. hundr, O.H.G. hunt, Eng. hound, Ger. Hund), Lat. canis, Gk. kuōn, Skr. śvan, Av. spā, Pers. sag, Phryg. kunes, Thrac. dinu-, Dacian kinu-, Toch. ku/ku, Arm. šun, O.Pruss. sunis, Lith. šuo, Ltv. suns, Russ. suka, Pol. suka, Gaul. cuna, O.Ir. cū, Welsh ci, Alb. shakë; Hitt. śuwanis, Lyd. kan-. Derivatives kwonikós, cynic, from Gk. κυνικός; variant Lat. kánis gives kanāsiós, pertaining to dogs, kanrios, canary, kaninós, canine.

155. Compare the well-attested derivatives of PIE numerals from one to ten:

I. The usual IE word for one is óinos, (earlier *h₁oinos) one, only, attested as Gmc. ainaz (cf. Goth. ains, O.N. einn, O.E. ān, O.H.G. ein, Dan. een, O.Fris. an, Du. een), Lat. ūnus (O.Lat. oinus), Osc. uinus, Umb. uns, Gk. οἴνη, O.Pruss. aīns, Lith. vienas, Ltv. viens, O.C.S., (ѥд)инъ, ино-, O.Russ. [од]инъ, [од]ина, Polish [jed]en, Gaul. oinos, O.Ir. óin, Welsh un, Kamviri ev, Alb. një/nji, Osset. иу (iu). Slavic prefix ed- comes from IE ek, “out”.

PIE root oi-, earlier *h₁ói, (which gives oinos) had other rare compounds, as óiwos, one alone, unique, as Gk. oi(w)os, Av. aēva, O.Pers. aiva, óikos, (maybe óiqos) one, as Hitt. aika-, O.Ind. éka-, Hindi एक(ek), Urdu ای (ik), Rro. yek, Pers. یِ (yek), Kashmiri akh. It had also vowel grades ei-, i-, as in ijo-, Gk. iō.

Derivatives include alnóinos, “all one”, alone, from alnós óinos, as W.Gmc. all ainaz (cf. Eng. alone, Ger. alleine, Du. alleen), nóin(os), “not one”, none, from ne óinos, as Gmc. nain-az (cf. O.S., M.L.G. nen, O.N. neinn, O.E. nan, M.Du., Du. neen, O.H.G., Ger. nein, Eng. none), Lat. nōn (cf. also Lat. nec unus in It. nessuno, Spa. ninguno, Pt. ninguém); from Latin are óiniōn, union, oinio, unite, oinitós, united, óinitā, unity, oinitā, unite, adoinā, join, komadoinā, coadunate, oinanamós, unanimous, oinikórnis, unicorn, oiniwérsos, universe; suffixed oinikós, one, anyone, and sole, single, as Gmc. ainigaz (cf. O.S. enig, O.N. einigr, O.E. ænig O.Fris. enich, Du. enig, Ger. einig, Eng. any), Lat. ūnicus, also in óinkiā, one twelfth of a unit, as Lat. ūncia.

For ordinal MIE prwós [pr̥:-wós], first, also dialectal preismós, prowtós, pristós [pr̥-is-’tos] (see more derivatives from per, forward, through, in front of, before, early, hence “foremost, first”, cf. Hitt. para, Lyc. pri), compare Gmc. furistaz (cf. O.N. fyrstr, O.E. fyrst, O.H.G. furist, fruo, Eng. first, Ger. Fürst, früh), Lat. primus, Osc. perum, Umb. pert, Gk. prōtos, Skr. prathama, Av. paoiriia, pairi, Osset. fyccag, farast, Toch. parwät/parwe, O.Pruss. pariy, Lith. pirmas, Ltv. pirmais, O.C.S. pĭrvŭ, Russ. pervyj, Polish pierwszy, O.Ir. er, Welsh ar, Alb. i parë, Kam. pürük.

PIE root sem-, one, together, united (Nom. séms/sōms, Gen. s(e)mós/somós, and as prefix sm̥), which refers to the unity considered as a whole, and appears usually in word compounds, as in seme, at once, at the same time, sémel, one time, as Lat. simul, ensémel, at the same time, ensemble; sémele, formerly, once, etc. Compare Gmc. sam- (cf. Goth. sama, O.N. sami, O.E. sum, O.H.G. saman, Eng. some, Ger. [zu]sammen), Lat. semel, Gk. heis, Skr. sakṛt, Av. hakeret, O.Pers. hama, Toch. sas/ṣe, Arm. mi, Lith. sa, Russ. сам, O.Ir. samail, Welsh hafal, Alb. gjithë, Kam. sâ~; Hitt. san, Lyc. sñta.

Derivatives include Greek full grade semdekmkomlabikós, hendecasyllabic (from MIE borrowing kómlabā, syllable, Gk. sullambanein, to combine in pronunciation, from kom and Gk. lambanein, to take), semodhesísmos, henotheism (see dhēs), suposem, hyphen (see supo); smkmtóm, see kmtóm, hundred; suffixed sémel, at the same time, Lat. simul, as in semeltaniós, simultaneous, adsemelā, assemble; sem(g)olós, alone, single, Lat. singulus; compound sémper (see per), always, ever (“once and for all”), Lat. semper; o-grade som, together, Skr. sam, and zero-grade extended sḿmn, together with, at the same time, as Gk. hama; o-grade suffixed somós, same, as Gmc. samaz (cf. O.N. samr, Eng. same), Gk. homos, in somo-, homo-, somio-, homeo-, sómilos, crowd, somilíā, discourse, homily, Gk. ὁμιλία; somlós, like, even, level, in ṇsomlós, anomalous, somlogrbhikós, homolographic; lengthened sōmís, fitting, agreeable, (< “making one”, “reconciling”), as Gmc. somiz (cf. O.N. sœmr, Eng. seem, seemly), also in sōmo-, self, Russ. sam(o); zero-grade sm̥-, as Gk. ha-, a-, “together” (the ‘a copulativum’, ‘a athroistikon’) as e.g. in a-delphos “brother”, from sm-celbhos literally "from the same womb" (cf. Delphi), cognate to English same (cf. Symbel), or Skr. saṃ-, present e.g. in the term for the language itself, viz. s(o)ms-qrtā, Skr. saṃ-s-kṛtā “put together”; smplós, simple, Lat. simplus, Gk. haploos, haplous, also smplḗks, “one fold”, simple, as Lat. simplex, in smplḗkitā, simplicity; suffixed sḿmos, one, a certain one, also -smmos, like, as Gmc. sumaz (cf. O.E. sum, -sum, Eng. some, -some); smmlós, of the same kind, like, similar, as Lat. similis, adsmmlā, assimilate; usually reconstructed *sḿteros, one of two, other, as Gk. heteros (older hateros), although sńteros (cognate with Lat. sine) should be used.

Compare also sḗmi, half, generally as first member of a compound, as Gmc. sēmi- (cf. O.E. sām-, in compounds samblind, samlæred, “half-taught, badly instructed”, samstorfen), Gk. hēmi, and Lat. semi- and sémis, half.

II. The forms for “two” alternate dwo/do, with duw-/du-, cf. Gmc. two- (cf. Goth. twai, O.N. tveir, O.E. twā, O.H.G. zwene, Eng. two, Ger. zwei), Lat. duo, Osc. dus, Umb. tuf, Gk. δύο, Skr. dva, Av. duua, Pers. duva, Pers. do, Toch. wu/wi, Arm. erku, O.Pruss. dwāi, Lith. du/dvi, Ltv. divi, O.C.S. dŭva, Russ. два, Pol. dwa, Gaul. vo, O.Ir. dá, Welsh dau, Kamviri dü, Alb. dy; Hitt. dā-, Lyc. tuwa. See also ámbhos, both.

Common PIE “second” was alterós (from PIE al, beyond) and anterós, “the other of the two, the second, other”, cf. Gmc. antharaz (cf. O.S. athar, O.N. annarr, Ger. ander, Goth. anþar), Lat. alter, Lith. antras, Skt. antarah, both senses still found in some modern languages, cf. Da. anden, Swe. andra, Nor. andre, Ice. annar.

To avoid ambiguity, some languages have renewed the vocabulary, as in suffixed participial Lat. seqondós, following, coming next, second (from PIE seq, follow), borowed in English second, while others have made compounds imitating the general ordinal formation in their dialects (cf. Ger. zweite, Du. tweede, Gk. δεύτερος, Skr. dvitīya, Fr. deuxième, Ir. dóú, Bret. daouvet, etc.), hence MIE dwoterós, dwitós, dwiós, etc.

Slavic languages have undergone a curious change, retaining the same words for “other” and “second” (and therefore the ambiguity), but using a word for “friend” (hence “other”), from IE deru, be firm, solid (hence also “be trustworthy”), compare O.Sla. дроугъ, giving Russ. друг, O.Pol. drug, Sr.-Cr., Slo. drȗg, Cz., Slk. druh, O.Pruss. draugiwaldūnen, Lith. draũgas, sudrugti, Lath. dràugs, and even Germanic (cf. verbs Goth. driugan, O.N. draugr, O.E. dréogan, Eng. dial. dree, “endure”, and as noun Goth. gadraúhts, O.H.G. trucht, truhtin).

III. For PIE root tri- trei- (cf. Hitt. tri-, Lyc. trei), giving IE tréjes, three, compare Gmc. thrijiz (cf. Goth. þreis, O.N. þrír, O.E. þrēo, O.H.G. drī, Eng. three, Ger. drei), Lat. trēs, Umb. trif, Osc. trís, O.Gk. τρείς, Gk.Cret. τρέες, Gk.Lesb. τρῆς, Skr. tráyas, tri, Av. thri, Phryg. thri-, Illyr. tri-, Toch. tre/trai, Arm. erek’, O.Pers. çi, Pers. se, O.Pruss. tri, Lith. trỹs, Ltv. trīs, Sla. trьje (cf. O.C.S. trĭje, O.Russ. трие, O.Cz. třiе, Polish trzy), Gaul. treis, O.Ir. treí, Welsh tri, Alb. tre. Modern derivatives include zero-grade trístis (from tri+st, see stā), “third person standing by”, witness, as Lat. testis, in trístā, witness, trístāments, testament, tristíkolos, testicle, adtristā, attest, komtristā, contest, detristā, detest, obhtristā, obtest, protristā, protest, tristidhakā, testify; suffixed o-grade form trójā, group of three, gives Russian tróikā.

For ordinal trit(i)ós, trtijós, compare Gmc thridjaz (cf. Goth. þridja, O.N. þriðe, O.E. þridda, O.Fris. thredda, O.S. thriddio, O.H.G. dritto, M.L.G. drudde, Du. derde, Ger. dritte), Lat. tertius, Gk. tritos, Skt. trtiyas, Avestan thritya, Lith. trecias, O.C.S. tretiji, O.Ir. triss, with common derivatives including trítiom, tritium.

IV. Alternating forms of four are qetwor, qtwor, qetur, qetr, qetwr. Unlike one, two, three, the inflected forms of “four”, i.e. m. qetwóres, f. qetwesóres, n. qetwṓr, are not common to all IE dialects; compare Gmc. fe(d)wor (cf. Goth. fidwor, O.N. fjórir, O.S. fiwar, O.Fris. fiuwer, Frank. fitter-, O.E. fēower, O.H.G. feor, Eng. four, Ger. vier Dan. fire, Sw. fyra), Lat. quattuor, Osc. petora, Umb. petor, Gk.Hom. τέσσαρες, πίσυρες, Gk.Ion. τέσσερες, Gk.Dor. τέτορες, O.Ind. catvā́ras, catúras, Av. čathwar, čaturam, Pers. čahār, Kurd. čwar, Thrac. ketri-, Toch. śtwar/śtwer, Arm. č’ork’, O.Pruss. keturjāi, Lith. keturì, O.Ltv. сеtri, O.C.S. četyri, Russ. четыре, Pol. cztery, Gaul. petor, O.Ir. cethir, Welsh pedwar, Bret. pevar, Alb. katër, Kam. što; Lyc. teteri.

For ordinal adjective qeturós, qetwrtós (also qeturtós), compare Gmc. fedworthaz (cf. O.E. fēortha, fēowertha, O.H.G. fiordo, M.Du. veerde, Ger. vierte, Eng. fourth), Lat. quārtus, Lith. ketvirtas, Russ. четвёртый, Cz. čtvrtý, Ir. ceathrú, Welsh pedwaredd.

V. For Indo-European pénqe, five, compare Gmc. finfe (cf. Goth. fimf, O.S. fif, O.N. fimm, O.E. fīf, O.H.G. funf), Lat. quinque, Osc. pompe, Umb. pumpe, Gk. πέντε, Skr. pañca, Av. paṇča, O.Pers. panča, Phryg. pinke, Toch. päñ/piś, Arm. hing, O.Pruss. pēnkjāi, Lith. penki, Ltv. pieci, O.C.S. pętĭ, Russ. пять, Polish pięć, Gaul. pempe, O.Ir. cóic, Welsh pump, Alb. pesë, Kam. puč; Luw. paⁿta.

For ordinal penqtós, compare Gmc. finfthaz (cf. Eng. fifth, Du. vijfde, Ger. fünfte, Sca. femte, etc.), Lat. quintus, Gk. πέμπτος, Lith. penktas, Russ. пятый, Cz. pátý, Ir. cúigiú, Welsh pumed, Bret. pempvet, etc.

VI. For PIE “six”, sweks and seks (also weks in Arm. vec’, originally then probably PIE *sweks), compare Gmc. sekhs (cf. Goth. saihs, O.S. seks, O.N., O.Fris. sex, O.E. siex, O.H.G. sēhs, M.Du. sesse), Lat. sex, Osc. sehs, Umb. sehs, Gk. έξ, Skr. ṣaṣ, Av. khšwuaš, Pers. šeš, Osset. æxsæz, Illyr. ses-, Toch. ṣäk/ṣkas, O.Pruss. usjai, Lith. šeši, Ltv. seši, O.C.S. šestĭ, Russ. шесть, Polish sześć, Gaul. suex, O.Ir. sé, Welsh chwech, Alb. gjashtë, Kam. ṣu.

For s(w)ekstós, compare Gmc. sekhsthaz (cf. O.E. siexta, Fris.,Ger. sechste, Du. zesde, Da. sjette) Latin sextus, Gk. ἑκτος, Lith. šeštas, Russ. шестой, Cz. šestý, Sr.-Cr.,Slo. šesti, Ir. séú, Welsh chweched, Bret. c’hwec’hvet, etc.

VII. For PIE séptm, septḿ, seven, compare Gmc. sebun (cf. O.S. sibun, O.N. sjau, O.E. seofon, O.Fris. sowen, siugun, O.H.G. sibun, Du. zeven), Lat. septem, Oscan seften, Gk. ἑπτά, Skr. saptá, Av. hapta, Pers. haft, Osset. avd, Toch. ṣpät (ṣäрtа-)/ṣukt, Arm. evt’n, O. Pruss. septīnjai, Lith. septynì, Ltv. septin̨i, O.C.S. sedmĭ, O.Russ. семь, Polish siedem, Gaul. sextan, O.Ir. secht. Welsh saith. Alb. shtatë (from septmtí-), Kamviri sut; Hitt. šipta-.

For ordinal septm(m)ós, compare Gmc. sebunthaz (cf. Eng. seventh, Ger. siebente, Du. zevende, Da. syvende, Swe. sjunde), Lat. septimus, Gk. ἑβδομος, Lith. sekmas, Russ. седьмой, Ir. seachtú, Welsh seithfed, Bret. seizhvet.

VIII. For PIE óktō(u), eight, older *h₃ekteh₃, compare Gmc. akhto(u) (cf. Goth. ahtau, O.N. átta, O.E. eahta, O.H.G. ahto), Lat. octō, Osc. uhto, Gk. οκτώ, Skr. aṣṭa, Av. ašta, O.Pers. ašta, Toch. okät/okt, Arm. ut’, O.Pruss. astōnjai, Lith. aštuoni, Ltv. astoņi, OCS osmĭ, Russ. восемь, Polish osiem, Gaul. oxtū, O.Ir. ocht, Welsh wyth, Alb. tëte, Kam. uṣṭ; Lyc. aitãta-.

For common ordinal oktowós, or newer imitative formations oktotós, oktomós, compare Gmc. akhtothaz (cf. Eng. eighth, Ger. achte, Du.,Fris. achtste, Swe. åttonde), Lat. octavus (but cf. Fr. huitième), Gk. ógdoos, Russ. (в)осьмой, Cz. osmý, Ir. ochtú, Welsh wythfed, Bret. eizhvet.

IX. PIE néwn (older *h₂néwn), nine, gave Gmc. niwun (cf. Goth.,O.H.G. niun, O.Fris. niugun, O.N. níu, O.E. nigon), Lat. novem, Osc. nuven, Umb. nuvim, Gk. ἐννέα, Skr. nava, Av. nauua, O.Pers. nava, Pers. noh, Toch. ñu, Arm. inn, O.Pruss. newīnjai, Lith. devynì, Ltv. deviņi, O.C.S. devętĭ, Russ. девять, Polish dziewięć, Gaul. navan, O.Ir. nói, Welsh naw, Alb. nëntë/nândë, Kam. nu; Lyc. ñuñtãta-. Slavic common form devętь, from PIE néwntis, is also found in O.N. niund, Gk. (f.) ἐννεάς, O.Ind. navatíṣ, Av. navaiti-. For ordinals nown(n)ós, neuntós, compare Gmc. niunthaz (cf. Eng. ninth, Ger. neunte, Du. negende, Da. niende, Swe. nionde), Lat. nonus, nouenus, (but Fr. neuvième), Gk. ένατος, Russ. девятый, Cz. devátý, Ir. naoú, Welsh nawfed, Bret. navvet.

X. For PIE dékm(t) [‘de-km̥], also dekḿ, ten, compare Gmc. tekhun (cf Goth. taihun, O.S. tehan, O.N. tíu, O.Fris. tian, O.E. tīen, O.Du. ten, O.H.G. zēhen), Lat. decem, Osc. deken, Umb. desem, Gk. δέκα, Skr. daśa, Av. dasa, Pers. datha, Dacian dece-, Toch. śäk/śak, Arm. tasn, O.Pruss. desīmtan, Lith. dešimt, Ltv. desmit, O.C.S. desętĭ, Russ. десять, Polish dziesięć, Gaul. decam, O.Ir. deich, Welsh deg, Alb. dhjetë/dhetë, Kam. duc.

For ordinal dekm(m)ós, dekmtós, compare Gmc. tekhunthaz (cf. O.E. teogoþa, Ger. zehnte, Du.,Da. tiende, Swe. tionde, Eng. tithe, tenth), Lat. decimus, Gk. dékatos, Lith. dešimtas, Russ. десятый, Cz. desátý, Ir. deichiú, Welsh degfed, Bret. dekvet.

156. This is the general situation in PIE (cf. e.g. for “twelve”, Ved.Skr. dvdaśa, Lat. duodecim, Gk. δώδεκα, Ir. dó dheag, etc.), although some dialectal differences are found:

a. In Slavic and dialectal Baltic, a peculiar form -nódekm (-pódekm), lit. “on ten”, is used, e.g. qetwrnódekm (qetwrpódekm) “four on ten”, as Russ. четырнадцать, i.e. четыре+на+дцать, (Ltv. četrpadsmit, i.e. četri+pad+desmit), cf. Pol. czternaście, Cz. čtrnáct, Sr.-Cr. četrnaest, etc.

b. Germanic and dialectal Baltic use compounds with MIE -liq(a), left over (see leiq), in Germanic only óinliq(a), “one left (beyond ten)”, as Gmc. ain-lif (cf. Goth. ain-lif, O.E. endleofan, O.H.G. elf, Eng. eleven), Lith. vienio-lika, dwóliq(a), “two left (beyond ten)”, as Gmc. twa-lif (cf. Goth. twalif, O.S. twelif, O.N. tolf, O.E. O.E. twelf, O.Fris. twelef, M.Du. twalef, O.H.G. zwelif), Lith. dvy-lika; also, compare Lithuanian try-lika, “thirteen”, keturio-lika, “fourteen”, etc.

For PIE leiq, leave, compare Gmc. laikhwnjan (cf. Goth. leiƕan, O.N. ljá, O.E. lǣnan O.H.G. līhan, Eng. lend, Ger. leihen), Lat. linquō, Gk. leipō, Skr. riṇakti, Av. raexnah, Pers. rēxtan, Arm. lk’anem, O.Pruss. polijcki, Lith. likti, Ltv. likt, Russ. olek, O.Ir. léicid. Common derivatives include ekléiqtis, eclipse, ellipsis, Gk. ἔλλειψις; o-grade lóiqnis, loan, as Gmc. laikhwniz (cf.O.N. lān, Eng. loan), loiqnio, lend, as Gmc. laikhwnjan, ; nasalized linqo, leave, as Lat. linquere, in delinqénts, delinquent, relinqo, relinquish, relí(n)qā, relic, etc.

c. It is believed that in some Germanic dialects an inflected form of -dekm- was possibly used (cf. O.E. -tēne, -tīne, -týne, Eng. -teen), maybe IE *-dekmis.

157. The suffix -k(o)mt, ten times, comes probably ultimately from zero-grade PIE *dkmtH, from dékm(t), ten, and is found as Lat. -gintā, Gk. -konta; it is also found in Germanic full-grade dekmtós, tenth, Gmc. teguntha- (cf. O.E. teogotha, tēotha, Eng. tenth, tithe).

Germanic suffix -tig, “group of ten”, representing “ten” in cardinal numbers (as Eng. sixty, seventy, etc.), possibly an independent Gmc. root (cf. O.E., Du. -tig, O.Fris. -tich, O.N. -tigr, O.H.G. -zig, -zug), existed as a distinct word in Goth. tigjus, O.N. tigir, “tens, decades”. Germanic retains traces of an old base-12 number system, as the words eleven, “leave one”, and twelve, “leave two”, show, v.s. Old English also had hund endleofantig for 110 and hund twelftig for 120. One hundred was hund teantig. O.N. used hundrað for 120 and þusend for 1,200. Tvauhundrað was 240 and þriuhundrað 360.

Balto-Slavic dialects use the forms that MIE reserves for the tens (due to their different formation), i.e. “(unit)+ten”, e.g. three-ten, as Russ. тридцать (i.e. три + дцать), Ltv. trīsdesmit (i.e. trīs+desmit); cf. also Pol. trzydzieści, Sr.-Cr. trideset, etc.

158. For IE (d)wīkḿtī, twenty, originally then *dwi-dkomt-, compare Lat. vīgintī, Gk. είκοσι, Skr. viṅśati, Av. visaiti, Pers. بيست (bēst), Toch. wiki/ikäṃ, Arm. k’san, Gaul. vocontio, O.Ir. fiche, Welsh ugain, Alb. njëzet/njizet, Kamviri vici. For newer formations in Balto-Slavic, as MIE dwo+dekm, cf. Lith. divdesmit, Russ. двадцать, Pol. dwadzieścia, Cz. dvacet, Sr.-Cr., Bul. dvadeset, Slo.,Slk. dvajset, Rom. douăzeci.

Indo-European tens are generally found in the oldest – or more archaic – attested dialects as compounds of zero-grade numbers with -dkomt-, as trikómt() (Lat. trīgintā, Gk. triákonta, Ir. tríocha, Skr. triṅśat), qetwrkómt() (cf. Lat. quadrāgintā, Gk. tessarákonta, Skr. catvāriṅśat), penqekómt() (cf. Lat. quinquāgintā, Gk. pentêkonta, Ir. caoga, Skr. pañcāśat), s(w)ekskómt() (cf. Lat. sexāgintā, Gk. exêkonta, Ir. seasca, Skr. ṣaṣṭiḥ), septmkómt() (cf. Lat. septuāgintā, Gk. heptákonta, Ir. seachtó, Skr. saptatiḥ), newnkómt() (cf. Lat. nonāgintā, Gk. ennenêkonta, Ir. nócha, Skr. navatiḥ).

For PIE kmtóm, hundred, (probably from *dkmtóm, a zero-grade suffixed form of dékm, ten), compare Gmc. khunda (cf. Goth. hund, O.H.G. hunt), Lat. centum, Gk. εκατόν, Skr. śata, Av. satem, Pers. sad, Toch. känt/kante, O.Lith. šim̃tas, Ltv. simts, O.C.S. sŭto, Russ. сто, Pol. sto, Gaul. cantam, O.Ir. cét, Welsh cant. Also, West Germanic dialectal MIE kḿt(m)-radhom (for rádhom, number, see ar), khund(a)-ratham, as O.N. hundrað, O.E. hundred, Ger. hundert, Eng. hundred.

A general Proto-Indo-European inflected noun for “thousand” was (sm)ghéslos, -om, -ā, (one) thousand, as Skr. sahasram, Av. hazarəm, Pers. hāzar, Toch. wälts/yaltse, Russ. число, Cz. číslo. Common MIE derivatives include ghéslioi, thousand, as O.Gk. χίλιοι, in gheslo-, kilo-, and Latin derivatives from mīlle, O.Lat. mī(hī)lī, in turn from an older PIE suffixed sm-ghesl-ī.

The usual (uninflected) Germanic and Balto-Slavic common form túsntī, “massive number” hence “thousand”, gave Gmc. thusundi (cf. Goth. þusundi, O.N. þúsund, O.E. þūsunt, O.Fris. thusend, O.H.G. þūsunt, Du. duizend), Toch. tumane/tmām, Lith. tūkstantis, Ltv. tūkstots, OCS tysǫšti, Russ. тысяча, Polish tysiąc. It is possibly related to PIE tew, swell, and some consider it an older *tūs-kmtī->*túsmtī/túsomtī, “swollen hundred”.

159. For IE pel, fold, compare o-grade nouns paltōn, fold, as Gmc. falthan (cf. Goth. falþan, O.N. falda, O.E. faldan, fealdan, M.L.G. volden, Ger. falten), and combining forms -paltos, as Gmc. -falthaz (cf. Goth. falþs, O.N. -faldr, O.E. -feald, -fald, Ger. -falt), and -pls, as Lat. -plus, Gk. -πλος, -πλόος, also as Gk. πολύς, still used in modern Greek. Extended IE base pleks, plait, gives o-grade plóksom, flax, as Gmc. flakhsam (cf. O.E. fleax, O.Fris. flax, Ger. Flachs), full-grade -pleks, -fold, in compounds such as dupleks, tripleks, mltipleks, etc., and as verb plekā, fold, plicate, Lat. plicāre, in adplekā, apply, komplekā, complicate, kómpleks, complice, eksplekā, deploy, deeksplekā, deploy, display, enplekā, involve, implicate, employ, enplekitós, implicit, replekā, replicate, reply; suffixed plekto, weave, plait, entwine, as Lat. plectere, p.part. plekstós (from *plekttos), as in plékstos, plexus, amplekstos, amplexus, komplekstio, entwine, komplekstós, complex, perplekstós, confused, perplexed; Greek plektós, twisted.

160. For PIE mónoghos (root menegh-), much, many, compare Gmc. managaz (cf. Goth. manags, O.S. manag, O.E. monig, manig, O.Fris. manich, Swed. mången, Du. menig, Ger. manch), O.C.S. munogu, Russ. много, Cz. mnoho, O.Ir. menicc, Welsh mynych. The compound monoghopóltos, manifold, is common to Germanic dialects, cf. Goth. manag-falþs, O.E. monigfald (Anglian), manigfeald (W.Saxon), O.Fris. manichfald, M.Du. menichvout, Swed. mångfalt, etc.

161. For PIE first person egṓ, egóm, (and later also attested as Gmc. and Sla. eg-), compare Gmc. ek (cf. Goth. ik, O.Fris. ik, O.E. Ic, O.N. ek, O.H.G. ih, Norw. eg, Dan. jeg, Eng. I, Ger. ich), Lat. ego, Umb. eho, Gk. έγώ, Av. azəm, O.Lith. еš, O.Pruss.,Ltv. es, O.C.S. азъ, O.Russ. язъ, O.Pol. jaz, Kam. õc; Hitt. uk, Carian uk. Dialectal Skr. aham, Ven. eχо, could show a variant form eghó(m), while Slavic аzъ and Anatolian ug forms show maybe another old o-grade variant *ṓgo, although this is disputed. Derivatives from inflected me(ghi) include Gmc. me(ke) (cf. O.N., Goth. mik, O.E. me, mec, O.H.G. mih), Lat. me, Umb. mehe, Ven. mego, Gk. eme, Skt. mam, Av. mam, Russ. mne, O.Ir. mé, Welsh mi, Alb. mua, etc.

162. For PIE wéjes, we, compare Gmc. wejz (cf. Goth. wit, weis, O.S. wi, O.N. vit, vér, O.E. wē, O.Fris. wi, O.H.G. wir, Dan. vi, Du. wij), Skr. vayam, Av. vaēm, O.Pers. vayam, Toch. was/wes, Lith., O.Pruss. mes (<*wes), Ltv. my (<*wes), Arm. mek (<*wes), Hitt. wēs. For inflected IE ns-, nos, compare Gmc. uns- (cf. Goth. unsar, ugkis, ON oss, okkr, O.E., us, uncer, O.S., O.Fris. us, O.H.G. unsih, unser, Swed. oss), Lat. nōs, Gk. hmeis (<nsmé, cf. Eol. amme), no, Skr. nas, Av. nō, O.Pers. amaxām, Toch. nás, O.Pruss. noūson, Lith. nuodu, Russ. nas, Polish nas, O.Ir., Welsh ni, Alb. ne; Hitt. anzās.

163. For Indo-European tū, you (sg.), compare Gmc. thū (cf. Goth. þu, O.N. þú, O.E. þu, O.H.G. thu, Eng. thou, Ger. du), Lat. tū, Osc. tiium, Umb. tiú, Gk. su, Skr. tvam, Av. tū, O.Pers. tuva, Toch. tu/tuwe, Arm. du, O.Pruss. toū, Lith. tu, Ltv. tu, O.C.S.,Russ. ty, Polish ty, O.Ir. tú, Welsh ti, Alb. ti, Kam. tü; Hitt. tuk.

164. PIE júwes, you (pl.), gives Gmc. iuwiz (cf. Goth. jus, O.N. yor, O.S. iu, O.E. [g]ē-ow, O.Fris. iu-we, M.Du. u, O.H.G. ir, iu-wih), Osc.-Umb. uēs, -uus, Gk. humeis, Skr. yūyam, Av. yūžəm, Toch. yas/yes, Arm. dzez, O.Pruss. ioūs, Lith. jūs, Ltv. jūs, Celt. swis (<*swēs), Alb. ju (<*u), Hitt. sumēs. For wos, jus-, compare Lat. vōs, Umb. uestra, Skr. vas, Av. vō, O.Pruss. wans, Russ. vy, vas, Polish wy, was.

165. Indo-European reflexive s(w)e gave Goth. sik, O.N. sik, O.H.G. sih, Ger. sich, Lat. sē, sibi, Oscan sífeí, Umbrian seso, Gk. heos, Skr. sva, Av. hva, Phryg. ve, Arm. ink’s, O.Pruss. sien, sin, Lith. savo, Ltv sevi, O.C.S. se, Russ. sebe, -sja, Alb. vetë; Carian sfes, Lyd. śfa-. Derivatives include suffixed sélbhos, self, Gmc. selbaz (cf. Goth. silba, O.N. sjalfr, O.E. seolf, sylf, O.Fris. self, Du. zelf, O.H.G. selb), s(w)ebh(ó)s, “one’s own”, blood relation, relative, as Gmc. sibjas (cf. Goth. sibja, O.S. sibba, O.E. sibb, O.Fris., M.Du. sibbe, O.H.G. sippa, Eng. sib, Ger. Sippe); suffixed swóinos, “one’s own (man)”, attendant, servant, also sheperd, as Gmc. swainaz (cf. O.N. sveinn, O.E. swan, O.S. swen, O.H.G. swein, Eng. swain); suffixed s(u)w-, as in suwikīdā, sucide, and swṓmis, “one’s own master”, owner, prince, as Skr. svāmī; extended sed, sē, without, apart (from “on one’s own”); suffixed o-grade sōlos, by oneself alone, Lat. sōlus, as in sōlitāsiós, solitary, desōlā, desolate; suffixed swēdhsko, accustom, get accustomed, as Lat. suēscere, as in komswēdhsko, accustom, p.part. komswēstós (<*komswēdh(sk)to-), in komswēstū́dōn, consuetude, custom, deswēstū́dōn, desuetude, manswēstū́dōn, mansuetude; suffixed extended swetrós, comrade, companion, as O.Gk. hetaros; suffixed form sweinós, self, as O.Ir. féin, as in Sinn Fein; suffixed swétos, from oneself.

Some linguists connect the pronoun to an older PIE root swe- meaning family, in turn related with su, be born, which would have frozen in ancient times through composition in words like sw-esōr, lit. “woman of the own family” (from sw-, “family, own” and ésor-, woman), as opposed to the generic ésōr or cénā, woman.

166. For PIE deuk, lead, also “pull, draw”, compare Gmc. teuhan (cf. O.E. tēon, O.H.G. ziohan, Eng. tug, Ger. ziehen, Zug), M.Welsh dygaf, Alb. nduk; zero-grade suffixed dúkā, draw, drag, Gmc. tugōn (cf. O.E. togian, Eng. tow), and prefixed ekdukā, lead out, bring up, educate, in Lat. ēducāre; suffixed o-grade doukē, bind, tie; dóukmos, descendant, family, race, brood, hence “team”, as Gmc. tauhmaz, O.E. tēam, and denominative verb doukmio, beget, teem, as Gmc. taukhmjan, O.E. tēman, tīeman; basic form gives Latin derivatives déuks, duke, apdeuko, abduct, addeuko, adduce, aqādéuktos, aqueduct, kikromdéuktiōn, circumduction, komdeuko, conduce, conduct, dedeuko, deduce, deduct, ekdeuko, educe, endeuko, induce, entrodeuko, introduce, prodeuko, produce, redeuko, reduce, sedeuko, seduce, supdeuko, subdue, transdeuko, traduce.

167. For PIE so, this, as O.E. se (later replaced by th-, in the), Gk. ho, he, Skt. sa, Avestan ha, O.Ir. so, had also a Germanic feminine sjā, “she”, Gmc. sjō, as O.E. sēo, sīe. A common loan word is variant form sei- in compound with ki, here, giving séiki, thus, so, in that manner, as Lat. sīc (cf. for Romance “yes”, Fr. si, It. sì, Spa.,Cat. sí, Pt. sim). From inflected form to are Gmc. thē (cf. O.E. the, M.Du. de, Ger. der, die), L. ta[lis], Gk. to, Skr. ta-, BSl. to, also alternative Greek borrowing tmto-, tauto-; from neuter tod is Gmc. that; from accusative tām are adverbial Latin tmdem, at last, so much, tandem, and tmtos, so much, and from its reduced form tā- is suffixed tlis, such.

168. From PIE i are derivatives jénos (see éno), that, yon, as Gmc. jenaz (cf. Goth. jains, O.N. enn, O.Fris. jen, O.H.G. ener, M.Du. ghens, O.E. geon, Ger. jener), and as extended jend-, jéndonos, yond, yonder, beyond, as Gmc. jend(anaz), O.E. geond(an); extended form ji gives O.E. gēa, Ger., Dan., Norw., Sw. ja, Eng. yeah; relative stem jo plus particle gives jóbho, “doubt”, if, as Gmc. jaba (cf. O.E. gif, O.N. ef, if, O.Fris. gef, O.H.G. ibu, iba, Ger. ob, Du. of); basic form i, Lat. is, neuter id, it, and ídem, same, as in idemtikós, identical, idémtitā, identity, idemtidhakā, identify; suffixed íterom, again, iterā, iterate, reiterā, reiterate, ítem, thus, also.

For MIE reconstructed līg, body, form, like, same, compare Germanic derivatives komlgos, “like”, having the same form, lit. “with a corresponding body”, as Gmc. galikaz (cf. Goth. galeiks, O.S. gilik, O.N. glikr, O.E. gelic, Du. gelijk, Ger. gleich), analogous, etymologically, to MIE kombhormís, Lat. conform; verb līgio, please, as Gmc. likjan (cf. Goth. leikan, O.N. lika, O.E. lician, O.Fris. likia, O.H.G. lihhen).

For MIE reconstructed bhórmā, form, compare Lat. forma, “form, mold, shape, case”, and Greek μορφη, “form, shape, beauty, outward appearance”, equivalent to IE mórbhā, hence both possibly from a common PIE root merbh-/bherm, “form”.

169. For ko, ki, here, compare as Gmc. khi- (cf. Goth. hita, ON hér, O.E. hit, he, her, O.H.G. hiar, Eng. it, he, here), Lat. cis, Lith. šis; Hitt. kāš, Luw. zaš. Also, a common particle ke is found, as in O.Lat. hon-ce (Lat. hunc), Gk. keinos (from ke-eno), also Hitt. ki-nun, “now”.

170. PIE éno, there, gave Gmc. jenos (in compound with i), Skr. ena-, anena, O.C.S. onu, Lith. ans.

171. Common loan word Latin murus, “wall”, comes from O.Lat. moiros, moerus, i.e. MIE móiros, with common derivatives moirālís, of a wall, and n.pl. moirlia, as Fr. muraille, Spa. muralla, Eng. mural. This word is used normally in modern Indo-European languages to refer to an “outer wall of a town, fortress, etc.”, as Ger. Mauer, Du. muur, Sca. mur, Fr. mur, It.,Spa.,Pt. muro, Ca. mur, Lith. muras, Pol. mur, Ir. mur, Bret. mur, Alb. mur, etc., while most IE languages use another word for the “partition wall within a building”, as MIE wállom, wall, rampart, row or line of stakes, a collective from wállos, stake, as Lat. uallum, uallus (cf. O.E. weall, O.S., O.Fris., M.L.G., M.Du. wal, Swe. vall, Da. val, Ger. Wall), MIE pariéts, as Lat. paries, parietis (cf. It. parete, Spa. pared, Pt. parede, Rom. perete), MIE stinā (cf. O.C.S. stena, Russ. стена, Sr.-Cr.,Slo. stena, Cz. stěna, Pol. ściana, also compare loans Ltv. siena, Lith. siena, Finn. seinä, Est. sein). IE móiros comes from PIE mej, strengthen, pole, as in Gmc. mairja- (cf. O.Eng. mǣre, gemǣre “limit, boundary”, O.Ice. landa-mǣri), O.Ind. mití-, Pers. mēχ “peg, plug, nail” (<*maiχa), O.Ir. [-tuid]men, and extended Lith. mita, Sla. moisto or meisto (from PIE *me/o-itto), as in O.Bulg. město, Ser.-Cr. mjȅsto, Cz. místo, etc.

For Indo-European root stāi-, stone, compare Slavic stinā, wall, and o-grade stóinos, stone, as Gmc. stainaz (cf. Goth. stains, O.N. steinn, O.E. stan, O.H.G. stein, Da. steen); suffixed stjr, solid fat, suet, as Gk. στέαρ, in stājrikós, stearic, etc; cf. also Gk. stia, stion, “pebble”, Skr. styayate “curdles, becomes hard”, Av. stay- “heap”.

172. For PIE peig, also peik, cut, mark (by incision), compare derivatives péik(o)lā, cutting tool, file, saw, as Gmc. fīkh(a)la (cf. O.E. feol, fil, O.H.G. fila, M.Du. vile, Eng. file, Ger. Feile), Lith. pela, O.C.S. pila; nasalized zero-grade pingo, embroider, tattoo, paint, picture (presumably from “decorate with cut marks” to “decorate” to “decorate with color”), as Lat. pingere, in p.part. pigtós, painted, pigtósā, painting, picture, pigmńtom, pigment, depingo, depict; suffixed zero-grade form pikrós, sharp, bitter, as Gk. pikros; o-grade poikilós, spotted, pied, various, as Gk. poikilos. Compare, with the sense of “mark, decorate”, Skr. pingaḥ, pesalaḥ, pimsati, O.C.S. pisati, pegu, “variegated”, O.H.G. fehjan “adorn”, Lith. piesiu “write”.

173. For PIE ed, eat, originally bite, compare Gmc. (pro)etan (cf. Goth. itan, ON eta, O.E. etan, fretan, O.H.G. ezzen, frezzan, M.Du. eten), Lat. edere, as in edibhilís, edible, komedo, comedo, Lat. comedere, p.part. komestós, (<*komedto-) as in komestibhilís; compound prám(e)diom, “first meal”, lunch (from prām, first), as Lat. prandium; suffixed edunā, pain (from “gnawing care”), as Gk. odunē. Compare Lat. edō, Osc. edum, Gk. edō, Skr. ad, Av. ad, Thrac. esko-, Toch. yesti, Arm. utel, O.Pruss. ist, Lith. ėsti, Ltv. ēst, Russ. jest’, Polish jeść, O.Ir. esse; Hitt. at, Luw. ad-, az-, Palaic ata-.

Proto-Indo-European donts (old gen. dentós), tooth, originally present participle *h₁dent, “biting”, gives Gmc. tanth-tunth (cf. Goth. tunþus, O.E. tōð , pl. teð, cf. O.N. tönn, O.S. tand, O.Fris. toth, O.H.G. zand, Dan., Swed., Du. tand, Ger. Zahn), Lat. dentis, Gk. odous/donti, Skr. dantam, Pers. dandān, Lith. dantis, Russ. desna, O.Ir. dét, Welsh dant, Kam. dut. Modern derivatives include Germanic dńtskos, canine tooth, tusk (cf. O.E. tux, tusc, O.Fris. tusk), Latin dentālís, dental, dentístā, dentist, endentā, indent, tridénts, trident, and Greek -donts, donto-, as Gk. odōn, odous, in dontologíā, odontology, etc.

174. Proto-Indo-European gal, call, shout, gave expressive gallo, as Gmc. kall- (cf. O.N. kalla, O.E. ceallian, O.H.G. halan, Eng. call), also found in Latin noun gállos, cock (< “the calling bird”), as Skr. usakala, “dawn-calling”, M.Ir. cailech, (but also associated with Gallus, Gallic, as if to mean “the bird of Gaul”), in gallinakiós, gallinaceous; gálsos, voice, as O.C.S. glasŭ, as in glasnost; also, reduplicated gálgalos, word, as O.C.S. glagolu. Also found in Gk. kaleo, kelados, Lith. kalba, “language”.

175. For Proto-Indo-European verbal root pō(i), drink, compare common derivatives Lat. pōtāre, pōtus, bibō, Umb. puni, Gk. πί̄νω, πόσις, Gk.Lesb. πώνω (Fut. πίομαι, Aor. ἔπιον, Impf. πῖθι, Perf. πέπωκα), O.Ind. píbati, pītás, pītíṣ, also рti, рāуáуаti, рáуаtē, Thrac. pinon, Arm. əmpelik’, O.Pruss. poutwei, poieiti, Lith. puotà, Sla. pī- (cf. O.C.S. pitijĭ, piju, O.Russ. пити, Pol. pić, piju, Cz. píti, piji, Sr.-Cr. пи̏ти, пи̏jе̑м, Slo. píti, píjem, etc.), O.Ir. ibim, Welsh yfed, Alb. pi (aor. рīvа); Hitt. pas. For MIE common words, compare pōtós, drunk, as Lat. pōtus, in pōtā, drink, Lat. pōtāre; suffixed zero-grade pótis, drink, drinking, in kompótiom, “with drinking”, feast, banquet, symposium, as Gk. συμπόσιον, and further suffixed Latin pṓtiōn, a drink, potion, as Lat. pōtiō, or; zero-grade pros, feast, as O.C.S. pirŭ (cf. also general zero-grade pī, Sla. pij-, “drink”); suffixed nasal pīno, drink, as Gk. pīnein; suffixed pṓtlom, drinking vessel, cup, bowl, as Skr. pātram; suffixed reduplicated zero-grade pipo-, whence pibo, drink, as O.Ind. píbati, Sla. pivo, also in Lat. bibere, where it is assimilated to *bibo.

A common term for “beer”, thus, could be Modern Indo-European neuter píbom, as both common European words are derived from PIE reduplicated verb pibo, compare Lat. bibere (cf. O.E. beor, O.N. bjórr, Du.,Fris.,Ger. bier, Ice. bjór, Fr. bière, It.,Cat. birra, Rom. bere, Gk. μπίρα, Pers. abejo, Bul. бира, Ir. beoir, Welsh bîr, Bret. bier, Alb. birrë, also Hebrew bîrah, Turkish bira, Arabic bīra, Jap. bīru, Chinese píjiǔ/bihluh, Maori pia, Thai biya, Malay bir, Indonesian bir, Swahili, Vietnamese bia), and Slavic pivo (cf. Russ.,Ukr. пиво, Pol. piwo, Cz.,Sr.-Cr. pivo, Bel. піва, Mac. пиво, also Mongolian пиво, Azeri pivo, etc.). For other terms, compare MIE áluts, ale, as Gmc. aluth (cf. O.E. ealu, O.S. alo, O.N.,Sca. øl, Ice. öl, Ltv.,Lith. alus, O.C.S. olu, Slo. ol, Rom. olovină, also Est. õlu, Finn. olut), perhaps from a source akin to Lat. alumen, “alum”, or to PIE root alu, a root with connotations of “sorcery, magic, possession, intoxication”. Another term comes from Cel.-Lat. cerevisia -> cervesia (cf. Spa. cerveza, Pt. cerveja, Occ.,Cat. cervesa, Gal. cervexa, Filipino, Tagalog servesa, Ilongo serbisa, Cebuano sirbesa, Tetum serveja, etc.), in turn from agricultural Goddess Lat. Ceres, from PIE ker, grow, and possibly Lat. vis, “strength”, from IE wros, man.

For PIE ker, grow, compare kérēs, as Lat. Cerēs, goddess of agriculture, especially the growth of grain, in kerelis, cereal; extended form krē-, in krēio, bring forth, create, produce (< “to cause to grow), create, as Lat. crēāre, also in prōkrēiā, procreate, krēitiōn, creation; suffixed krēsko, grow, increase, as Lat. crēscere, in krēskénts, crescent, komkrēsko, grow together, harden, p.part. komkrētós, in komkrētā, concrete, adkrēsko, accrue, dekrēsko, decrease, enkrēsko, increase, rekrēsko, increase, also recruit, ekskrēsko, grow out, in ekskrēskéntiā, excrescence, p.part. ekskrētós, grown out, in ekskrētā, separate, purge; suffixed o-grade kórwos, “growing”, adolescent, boy, son, and korw, girl, as Gk. kouros, koros, and korē; compound smkērós, “of one growth”, sincere (from zero-grade sm-, same, one), as Lat. sincērus.

176. For PIE root lew, wash, cf. Lat. lauāre, Gk. louein, Gaul. lautro, Arm. loganam/lokanam, O.Ir. lóathar, Welsh luddw, Hitt. lahhuzzi. Compare derivatives lóukā, as Gmc. laugō (cf. O.N. laug, O.E. lēðran, O.H.G. louga, Eng.lather, Ger. Lauge); from Latin variant lawo, zero-grade -lwo in compounds, are dislúwiom, deluge, adlúwiōn, alluvion, komlúwiom, colluvium, eklúwiom, eluvium, etc.; from athematic lawā are lawātóriom, lavatory, lawābho, lawātrnā, bath, privy, as Lat. lātrīna, etc.

177. The verb ‘to be’ in Old English was a compound made up of different sources. Bēon and wesan were only used in certain tenses (mixed with original PIE es). Bēon was used in the present tense to express permanent truths (the ‘gnomic present’), while wesan was used for the present participle and the preterite.

Wesan comes from Germanic *wīsan (cf. Goth. wesan, O.N. vesa, O.E. wesan, O.H.G. wesan, Dutch wezen, Ger. war, Swe. vara) from Indo-European wes, dwell, live, as in Celtic westi- (cf. Old Irish feiss). Common English forms include was (cf. O.E. wæs) and were (cf. O.E. Sg. wǣre, Pl. wǣron).

178. For PIE men, think, compare zero-grade suffixed (kom)mńtis, mind, as Gmc. (ga)munthiz (cf. Goth. muns, O.N. minni, O.E. gemynd, Ger. minne), Lat. mēns (ment-), in mntālís, mental, demntís, dement, mńtiōn, remembrance, mention; also, mntós, “willing”, as Gk. -matos, as in automntikós, automatic; suffixed mnio, be mad, as Gk. mainesthai, and mńios, spirit, as Av. mainiius; also fem. mńiā, madness, mania, as Gk. maniā, in mniakós, maniac; full-grade méntiā, love, as Gmc. minthjō (cf. O.H.G. minna, M.Du. minne); reduplicated mimno, remember, as Lat. meminisse, in mimnéntōd, memento (imperative), kommimnesko, contrive by thought, as Lat. comminīscī, kommentsiom, comment, remimnesko, recall, recollect, remimneskénts, reminiscent; mántis, seer, as Gk. mantis; méntros, counsel, prayer, hymn, as Skr. mantraḥ; suffixed ménōs, spirit, as Gk. menos; o-grade causative monē, remind, warn, advise, as Lat. monēre, in mónitiōn, monition, monitṓr, monitor, mónstrom, portent, monster, admonē, admonish, demonstrā, demonstrate, prāimonítiōn, supmonē, summon; maybe also from this root is suffixed Móntuā, Muse, which gives usual Greek loans montuáikos, mosaic, as Gk. Μωσαϊκός, montuéiom, museum, as Gk. μουσεῖον, montuik, music, as Gk. μουσική; extended mnā, reduplicated mimnāsko, remember, as Gk. mimnēskein, giving mnāstós, remembered, ṇmnāstós, “not remembered”, from which ṇmnāstíā, oblivion, amnesty, as Gk. ἀμνηστία, and ṇmnsiā, amnesia, mn(á)mn, memory, as Gk. mnẽma, mnmōn, mindful, mnāmonikós, mnemonic, mnmā, memory, as Gk. mnēmē; also, from PIE expression mens dhē, “set mind”, is compound noun mnsdhē, wise, as Av. maz-dā-.

A similar IE root is mendh, learn, which in zero-grade mndhā gives Gk. manthanein (Aorist stem math-), as in mndhāmntikós, mathematical, ghrēstomńdheiā, chrestomathy, etc.

Bibliography

This work is mainly a compilation of scholar knowledge, the output of two centuries of thorough research in comparative linguistics.

For this specific work we have used (among others, less important references) the following books:

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o Adrados, Francisco R., Bernabé, Alberto, Mendoza, Julia. Manual de lingüística indoeuropea II, Ediciones Clásicas, 1996.

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o Crépin, André. Problèmes de grammaire historique. Presses Universitaires de France, 1978.

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We have also used these quick sources on the Net:

o The Wikipedia, the Free Online Encyclopaedia, and the Wiktionary, both excellent sources for free resources and knowledge. Thanks to all contributors and to their founders.

o The Online American Heritage Dictionary.

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o The Indo-European Etymological Dictionary, University of Leiden.

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[1] Carlos Quiles, translated as Indo-European Kárlos Kūriákī:

a. Carlos is a popular Spanish name derived from Germanic karlaz, kerlaz (cf. O.N. karl, O.E. ċeorl), maybe originally “common person, free man”, Modern Indo-European Kárlos. In Norse mythology, Karl was the name of the first free peasant, the son of Rig and Amma. Rig was the human form taken by the god Heimdall when he produced the progenitors of the three social classes (thralls, peasants and nobility) with three different women. In the Scandinavian languages, Karl retains its meaning “man”. In German, the origin of the name Karl can be traced to the word Kerl which is still used to describe somewhat rough and common men. As in the words churl and churlish in English.

b. Quiles is a genitive, and means “(son) of quili” (cf. Spa. Quílez, Cat. Quilis, Ast. Quirós, Gal-Pt. Quiris). It comes, from mediaeval noun Quirici->Quili (shortened and with r->l), a loan word from Gk. Κυριακος (Indo-European kūriákos), from which It./Spa. Quirico, Gl.-Pt. Queirici, Cat. Quirce, Fr. Quirice, O.N. kirkja, Eng. church, Scots kirk or Ger. Kirche. PIE root keu- means swell. IE kūrios means master, lord, as Gk. κυριος, and adjective Kyriakos was used as Roman cognomen Cyriacos. Kūriákī should then be the proper genitive of the MIE loan-translated Greek term.

[2] For PIE root bhā (older *b^heh₂ colored into *b^hah₁) compare modern derivatives: zero-grade (bha) suffixed bháuknos, beacon, signal, as Gmc. bauknaz (cf. O.E. beacen, O.Fris. bacen, M.Du. bokin, O.H.G. bouhhan, O.Fr. boue, “buoy”), bhásiā, berry (“bright-coloured fruit”), as Gmc. bazjo (cf. O.E. berie, berige, O.H.G. beri, Frank. bram-besi into O.Fr. framboise, “raspberry”, MIE bhrambhasia); bhándwos, banner, identifying sign, standard, hence “company united under a particular banner” as Gmc. bandwaz (cf. Goth. banwa, also L.Lat. bandum into Sp. banda); suffixed zero-grade bháwes, light, as Gk. φῶς, φωτός, (MIE bháwes, bhawesós), as in common borrowings bhawtogrbhía (see gerbh), photography, shortened bháwtos, or bháwesphoros/phósphoros, bringing light, morning star, phosphorus. See bhā for more Greek derivatives on this root.

[3] Modern derivatives from IE dńghū-, language, are usually feminine, but for extended Slavic dńghwiks, which is masculine (cf. Russ. язык, Pl. język, Cz. jazik, Sr.-Cr.,Slo. jezik, Bul. език). Compare, for the noun of the English (language), modern Indo-European words: neuter O.E. Englisc, Ger. Englisch, Du. Engels, Gk. n.pl. Αγγλικά; masculine is found in Scandinavian engelsk, in Romance – where the neuter merged with the masculine – Fr. anglais, It. inglese, Spa. inglés, Pt. inglese, as well as alternative Lat. sermō latīnus, and Slavic (following the masculine of the word “language”), Russ. английский [язык], Pol. język angielski, Bul. английски [език], Sr.-Cro. engleski [jezik] etc.); feminine (following the gender of “language”) Lat. anglica [lingua], Rom. [limba] engleză, or Slavic Cz. angličtina, Slo. angleščina, Bel. англiйская; or no gender at all, as in Arm. angleren [lezu].

[4] PIE root wéro, speak, (or *werh₃), gives MIE wŕdhom, word, as Gmc. wurdam, (cf. Goth. waurd, O.N. orð, O.S., O.Fris., O.E. word, Du. woord, O.H.G., Ger. wort), and wérdhom, verb, as Lat. uerbum, as in adwérdhiom, adverb, or prōwérdhiom, proverb; also wério, say, speak, metathesized in Greek, as in werionía, as Gk. εἰρωνεία; also, suffixed variant form wrētṓr, public speaker, rhetor, as Gk. ῥήτωρ, and wrḗmn, rheme. Compare also Umb. uerfalem, Gk. ειρω, Skr. vrata, Av. urvāta, O.Pruss. wīrds, Lith. vardas, Ltv. vārds, O.C.S. vračĭ, Russ. врать, O.Ir. fordat; Hitt. ueria.

[5] PIE base jeug, join (probably from a root jeu), evolved as O.H.G. [untar]jauhta, Lat. jungō, Gk. ζεύγνῡμι O.Ind. yunákti, yōjayati (IE jeugeieti), Av. yaoj-, yuj-, Lith. jùngiu, jùngti; gives common derivatives jugóm, joining, yoke; cf. Gmc. jukam (cf. Goth. juk, O.N. ok, O.S. juk, O.E. geoc, Dan. aag, M.Du. joc, Du. juk, O.H.G. juch, Ger. Joch), Lat. iugum, Gk. ζυγον, O.Ind. yugám, Skr. yogaḥ, Arm. luc (with –l influenced by lucanem, “unyoke”), Toch. yokäm, O.C.S. igo, Russ. obža, Cz. jho, Welsh iau, O.Cor. ieu, Bret. ieo; Hett. yugan; jéugos, yoke, as Goth. jukuzi, M.H.G. jiuch, Lat. jūgerum (from Lat. jūgera, IE jóugesa), Gk. ζεῦγος, O.C.S. ižesa;

[6] PIE adjective newós, -, -óm, gives Germanic newjaz, (cf. Goth. niujis, O.N. nýr, O.Eng. niowe, O.Fris. nie, O.H.G. niuwi, Du. nieuw, Dan., Swed. ny), Lat. nouus, Osc. núvellum, Gk. νέος, O.Ind. návas, návyas, Skr. navah, Av. nava-, O.Pers. nau, Toch. ñu/ñuwe, Thrac. neos, Arm. նռր, O.Pruss. nauns (due to analogy with jauns), O.Lith. navas, Lith. naũjas, Ltv. nàujš, O.C.S. novŭ, O.Russ. новъ, Polish nowy, Gaul. Novio-, O.Ir. nūë, Welsh newydd, O.Bret. neuued, Kamviri nuĩ, Kashmiri nōv, O.Osset. nog; Hitt. newash, Luw. nāw.

[7] Indo-European médhjos (from PIE me, v.i.) gives Gmc. medjaz (cf. Goth. midjis, O.N. miðr, O.S. middi, O.E. midd, O.Fris. midde, O.H.G. mitti), Lat. medius, Osc. mefiaí, Gk. μέσσος, O.Ind. mádhjam, Skt. mádhjaḥ, Av. maidja-, Pers. mēān, Illyr. metu, O.Arm. mēj, O.Pruss. median, Lith. medis, Ltv. mežs, O.C.S.. mežda, O.Russ. межу, Polish między, Gaul. Mediolānum, O.Ir. mid, Welsh mewn, Kamviri pâmüč. West Germanic dialects have a common dimminutive medhjolós, middle, as Gmc. middilaz (cf. O.E. middel, M.L.G., Du. middel, Ger. Mittel); Latin derivatives include medhjālis, medial, medhjliā, medal, medhjā, mediate, médhjom, medium, entermedhjā, intermediate, medhjaiwalis, medieval, medhitersaniós, mediterranean, etc.

PIE me, in the middle of, gives suffixed formes médhi-, among, with, as Gmc. mid-, and méta-, between, with, beside, after, as Gk. meta.

For PIE áiw-, also ájus, vital force, life, long life, eternity, compare Gmc. aiwi (as in O.N. ei, Eng. aye, nay), suffixed áiwom, age, eternity, in medhjaiwalis, mediaeval, primaiwalis, primeval, dhlongháiwotā, longevity; further suffixed áiwotā, age, and aiwoternos, eternal, as Lat. aeternus, in aiwotérnitā, eternity; suffixed áiwēn, age, vital force, eon, Gk. aiōn; zero-grade júcjes, “having a vigorous life”, healthy (from cjes, life), as Gk. hugiēs, in jucjénā (téksnā), hygiene; o-grade ójus, life, health, as Skr. āyuḥ, or Gk. ouk, from (ne) ojus (qid), “(not on your) life”, in ojutópiā, from Gk. οὐ, no, and τόπος, a place that doesn’t exist. See also derivative jeu, vital force, youthful vigor.

[8] PIE ágros, field, also pasture, land, plain, gives Gmc. akraz (cf. Goth. akrs, O.N. akr, O.E. æcer, O.Fris. ekkr, O.H.G. achar. Eng. acre), Lat. ager, Umb. ager (both from earlier Italic agros, district, property, field), Gk. αγρός, Skr. ajras, O.Arm. art.

[9] Indo-European sqálos, squalus, shark, (cf. Lat. squalus) is probably cognate to qálos, whale, as in Gmc. khwalaz (cf. O.S. hwal, O.N. hvalr, O.E. hwæl, M.Du. wal, O.H.G. wal), possibly from an original (s)qalos, with a general meaning of “big fish”, then constrained in its meaning in individual dialects. See S-Mobile in § 2.8 for more on such related words.

[10] Indo-European áqiā, “thing on the water”, “watery land”, island, is the source for Gmc. aujō, island (cf. Goth. ahwa, O.N. á, O.E. īeg, O.H.G. aha, O.Is. ey, M.H.G. ouwe, Eng. is[land]), as may be seen on Skandináqiā, Scandinavia L.Latin mistaken form of Skadináqiā, Scadinavia, “south end of Sweden”, loan-translation of Gmc. skadinaujō, “danger island” (cf. O.E. Scedenig, O.N. Skaney); first element is usually reconstructed as IE skátom, as in Gmc. *skathan, meaning danger, scathe, damage (Goth. scaþjan, O.N. skaða, O.E. sceaþian, O.Fris. skethia, M.Du. scaden, O.H.G. scadon), which could be related to Greek α-σκηθης (a-skēthēs), unhurt. The source for áqiā is PIE root áqā, water, cognate with Lat. aqua, Russ. Oká (name of a river) and, within the Anatolian branch, Hitt. akwanzi, Luw. ahw-, Palaic aku-.

English writing “island” was influenced by French isle, from Lat. insula, itself from MIE énsalā (from en-salos, “in the sea”, from sálom, sea, v.i.), giving derivatives ensalaris, insular, ensalanós, islander, ensalínā, insuline, etc.

[11] IE léndhom, land, soil, country, region, gave Gmc. landom (cf. Goth.,O.N., O.E., O.Fris., Du., Ger. land), and is derived from PIE lendh, with the meaning of land, steppe; compare O.Pruss. lindan, O.C.S. ledina, Russ. ljada, Polish ląd, Gaul. landa, O.Ir. land, Welsh llan, Bret. lann.

[12] For PIE root (á)ḿbhi, around, about, compare Gmc. (um)bi (cf. O.N. um/umb, O.E. be/bi, ymbe, M.Du. bie, O.H.G. umbi, bi, Du. bij, Ger. um, bei), Lat. ambi, amb, Gk. ἀμφι, Skr. abhi, Celt. ambi. It is probably derived from ant(i)-bhi, lit. “from both sides”, hence older *n̥b^hi. For PIE ánti, front, forehead, compare Gmc. andja (end, originally “the opposite side”, cf. Goth. and, O.N. endr, O.E. ende, O.Fris. enda, O.H.G. endi), Lat. antiae, Osc. ant, Gk. ἀντι, Toch. ānt/ānte, Lith. ant, O.Ir. étan. Anatolian Hitt. ḫanta, Luw. hantili, Lyc. xñtawata support the hypothesis of an earlier locative *h₂ént-i – see ant and ambhi.

[13] Proto-Indo-European ag, drive, draw, move, do, act, compare Lat. agere, Gk. αγειν, O.Ir. Ogma, from which agtiós, weighty, as Gk. αξιος, ágrā, seizing, as Gk. αγρα, and ágtos, in ambhágtos, one who goes around, from Lat. ambactus, a loan word from Celtic. Other common derivatives include agtēiuós, active, agtualis, actual, agtuariós, actuary, agtuā, actuate, agénts, agent, agilís, agile, agitā, agitate, ambhaguós, ambiguous, koágolom, coagulum, ekságiom, essay, eksagtós, exact, eksago, demand, ekságmen, exam, eksagmenā, examine, eksagénts, exigent, eksaguós, exiguous, nawagā, navigate, dhūmagā, fumigate, (from dhúmos, smoke) fustagā, fustigate (from Lat. fustis, “club”), transago, compromise, ntransagénts, intransigent (from n-, un-), litagā, litigate (from Latin loan litágiom, litigation), prōdago, drive away, to squander, (from prō-d-es, be good) prōdagós, prodigal, redago, redact, retrōago, drive back, retrōagtēiuós, retroactive, transago, transact; Greek agogós, drawing off, in -agógos, -agogue (“leading, leader”), as in dāmagógos, “popular leader”, demagogue (from dmos, people), supnagogikós, hypnagogic (from swep, sleep), pawidagógos, pedagogue, protagonístā, protagonist (Gk πρωταγωνιστής), ksunagógā, synagogue; suffixed agtiós, “weighty”, as in agtiós, worth, worthy, of like value, weighing as much, as in agtiómā, axiom, Gk. ἀξίωμα, agtiología, axiology; suffixed ágrā, driving, pursuing, seizing, as in Gk. agrā, in podágrā.

For PIE dhúmos, smoke, Lat. fumus, Gk. thymos, Skt. dhumaḥ, O.Prus. dumis, Lith. dumai, O.C.S. dymu, M.Ir. dumacha.

Indo-European swep, sleep, gives swopos, deep sleep, as Lat. sopor, in compound swoposidhakós (from -dhak), soporific; swópnos, sleep, as Lat. somnus, swópnolénts, somnolent, or nswópniom, insomnia; zero-grade suffixed súpnos, Gk. hypnos, and in supnótis, hypnosis, supnotikós, hypnotic.

For Indo-European root pau, few, little, compare derivatives pawós, Gmc. fawaz (cf. Goth. fawai, O.N. far, O.E. feawe, Dan. faa, O.Fris. fe, O.H.G. foh) or paukós, as Lat. paucus; suffixed metathesized form parwós, little, small, neuter parwom, little, rarely; compound pauparós, producing little, poor (IE parós, producing), as in depauparā, depauparate, and empauparā, impoverish; suffixed zero-grade púlā, young of an animal, as Gmc. fulōn (cf. Goth.,O.E. fula, O.N. foli, O.H.G. folo, O.Fris. fola, M.H.G. vole, Eng. foal, Ger. Fohlen); extended suffixed pútslos, young of an animal, chicken, as Lat. pullus, and diminutive putslolós, Lat pusillus, in putslolanamós, pusillanimous; also, for words meaning “boy, child”, compare suffixed púeros, as Lat. puer, pútos, as Lat. putus, and páwids, as Gk. παις (stem paid-), in pawidía, education, Gk. παιδεία, in enq(u)qlopáwidiā, encyclopaedia, from Modern Latin, itself from Greek “ἐγκύκλια παιδεία” “[well-]rounded education” (see IE en, q’qlos) meaning “a general knowledge”.

For IE pero, produce, procure, older *perh₂ (closely related to pero, both from per), compare Latin par- (from zero-grade), in parā, try to get, prepare, equip, in adparā, prepare, adparátos, apparatus, apparel, enparā, command, enparātṓr, emperor, imperator, enparatiuós, imperative, preparā, prepare, reparā, repair, separā, separate, sever; suffixed pario, get, beget, give birth, p.part. partós, in partosiénts, parturient, pártom, birth, repario, find out, repartóriom, repertory; parallel suffixed participial form parénts, parent, as Lat. parēns; suffixed form -parós, producing.

Indo-European pero, grant, allot (reciprocally, to get in return), gives derivatives as pártis, a share, part, as Lat. pars (stem part-), in pártio, divide up, share, partitós, divided, share, partítos, division, party, partíkolā, particle (with dim. partikillā, parcel), dwipartitós, bipartite, kompartio, compart, enpartio, impart, repartio, repart, pártiōn, portion, a part, Lat. portiō, in prō pártioni, in proportion, according to each part, into prōpártiōn, proportion; pār, equal, as in pritā, parity, kompārā, comapare, npritā, imparity, etc.

[14] PIE mātḗr is the source for Gmc. mōdar, (cf. ON móðir, O.E. mōdor, O.S. modar, O.H.G. muoter, M.Du. moeder), Lat. māter, Osc. maatreís, Umb. matrer, Gk. μήτηρ, O.Ind. mātā, Skr. mātár-, Av. mātar-, Pers. mādar, Phryg. mater, Toch. mācar/mācer, Arm. մայր (mair), Alb. motër, O.Pruss. mūti, Lith. mótė, Ltv. māte, O.C.S., O.Russ. мати, Polish matka, Gaul. mātir, O.Ir. máthir, Welsh modryb, Kamviri motr, Osset. madæ.

IE ending -ter usually indicates kinship (see also pa-ter, bhrā-ter, dhuga-ter, jena-ter), whilst ma- (earlier IE *mah₂-) is a baby like sound found in the word for “mother” in non-Indo-European languages; as, Estonian ema, Semitic ^cumm, Chinese māma, Apache, Navajo -ma, Vietnamese ma, Korean eomma, Malayalam amma, Zulu umama, Basque ama, Hawaiian makuahine, etc.; also, compare IE-related Hittite anna, Hungarian anya.

Compounds include māternalis, maternal, mātérnitā, maternity, mātríkolā, list, register, and verb mātrikolā, matriculate, mtriks, matrix, mātrimṓniom, matrimony; also, mātériā, tree trunk (<”matrix”, the tree’s source of growth), hence “hard timber used in carpentry”, hence (calque of Gk. hūlē, “wood, matter”), substance, stuff, matter, as in māterialis, material; mātrópolis (from pólis), metropolis, as Gk. μητρόπολις, as well as Greek goddess of produce (especially for cereal crops) Demeter, from dē-māter (see IE de).

[15] PIE root leuk-/louk- means bright, light, brightness. Compare léuktom, light, as Gmc. leukhtam (cf. Goth. liuhaþ, O.N. leygr, O.E. lēoht, O.Fris. liacht, M.Du. lucht, O.H.G. lōh, O.Ice. lōn), or léuktio, make light, as Gmc. leukhtjan (cf. O.E. līhtan); léuks, light, as lat. lūx, as in leukibhēr, “light-bearer”, Lucifer (from bher, carry); suffixed léuksmen, light, opening, as Lat. lūmen, for common derivatives adj. léuksmenōsós, luminous, enléuksmenā, illuminate, etc.; léuksnā, moon, as Lat. lūna, as in leuksnāris, lunar, leuksnātikós, lunatic, etc.; suffixed léuktrom, purification, as Lat. lūstrum; leukstrā, purify, illuminate, as Lat. lustrare, as in enleukstrā, illustrate; leukodhrā, work by lamplight, hence lucubrate, as Lat. lūcubrāre, as in eghleukodhrā, lucubrate, (see eghs) and eghleukodhrātion, elucubration; suffixed leukós, clear, white, as Gk. λευκός; o-grade loukeio, shine, as Lat. lūcēre, in loukeiénts, lucent, loukeitós, lucid, ekloukeitā, elucidate, reloukeio, shine, releukoiénts, relucent, transleukoiénts, translucent; zero-grade suffixed lúksnos, lamp, as Gk. lukhnos; and also attributed by some to this root nasalized zero-grade Gk. λύγξ, -γκός, “lynx”, in any case MIE lunks. Common IE derivatives include Lat. lux, lucere, Osc. lúvkis, Umb. vuvçis, Gk. λευκός, O.Ind. roká-, Av. raočant, Toch. luk, Arm. lois, lusin, Lith. laukas, Ltv. lauks, O.C.S. luci, Russ. lug, Gaul. leux, O.Ir. luchair, Welsh llug, Kamviri luka; Hitt. lukezi, Lyc. luga, Luw. luha-,

For PIE root lech, light, having little weight, compare Gmc. likhtaz (cf. Goth. līhts, O.N. léttr, O.E. lēoht, O.H.G. līht, Swed. lätt, O.Fris., M.Du. licht, Ger. leicht, Eng. light), Lat. levis, Gk. ἐλαχύς, Skr. laghúṣ, raghúṣ, Av. raghu-, rəvī (from *raghvī), Kashmiri lo.t, Toch. -/lankŭtse, O.Pruss. lāngiseilingins, Lith. lengva, Ltv. liegs, Sla. lьgъkъ (cf. O.C.S., O.Russ. льгъкъ, Russ. лёгкий, Pol. lekki, Cz. lehký, Sr.-Cr. ла̏к), O.Ir. lugu, laigiu (from *lagiōs), Welsh llai, Alb. lehtë. Common MIE derivatives include suffixed léchtos, light, and lechtio, lighten, as Gmc. likhtjan; lechús, light (extended in -is in Lat. leuis) into lechuā, lighten, raise, Lat. leuāre, as in léghuitā, levity, adlechuā, alleviate, eklechuā, elevate, relechuā, relieve, relechuánts, relevant; variant lachs, small, as O.Ir. lū-; nasalized zero-grade lńchs, lung, “light organ”, as Gmc. lungz (cf. O.N. lunge, O.E.,O.Fris. lungen, M.Du. longhe, Ger. lunge).

[16] PIE zero-grade lenghtened form ciwós is the source for Gmc. kwikwaz (cf. Goth. quis, O.N. kvikr, O.E. cwicu, O.Fris. quik, O.H.G. quec, Ger. keck, possibly also O.E. cwifer, Eng. quiver), lat. uīus, Osc. bivus, O.Ind. jīvati, Av. ǰvaiti, O. Pruss. giwа, Lith. gyventi, Ltv. dzīvs. It comes from PIE root cei, live, compare with Gk. βίος (bios), ζωή (zoé), Pers. gaithā, Toch. śo/śai, O.Arm. keam, O.C.S. жити, Russ. жить, Polish żyć, Gaul. Biturīges, O.Ir. bethu, Welsh byd.

[17] PIE root léus, loosen, divide, cut apart, gives extended verb luso, lose, forfeit, Gmc. lausan (cf. O.N. los, O.E. losian, O.Is. lyja, Swe. sofve), with zero-grade part. lusonós, Gmc. luzanaz, (O.E., Du. loren, Ger. [ver]loren), leusós, loose, untied, Gmc. lausaz (cf. Goth. laus, O.N. lauss, O.E. leas, Dan. løs, M.Du., Ger. los). Compare also Lat. luēs, Gk. λύω, Skr. lunáti, Toch lo/lau, O.Ir. loë, Alb. laj; Hitt. luzzi. It is derived from PIE leu, vide infra.

[18] For Indo-European ŕtkos, bear, from older *h₂rtcos (cf. Hitt. ḫartagga), compare Lat. ursus (from Ita. orcsos), Gk. αρκτος, Skr. ṛkṣa, Av. aršam, Pers. xers, Arm. arj, Gaul. Artioni, Welsh arth, Alb. ari, Kamviri ic, Osset. ærs. Common Modern metathesized borrowings include Latin rtkinós, ursine, Rtkikós, Arctic (from *Rktikós), Antrtkikós, Antartic (see ánti, opposite, in front), Welsh Rtkór(i)os, Arthur.

[19] Modern Indo-European nmn, name, from an older IE II *h₁noh₃mn̥, compare Gmc. namōn (cf. Goth. namō, O.N. nafn, O.E. nama, O.Fris. nama, O.H.G. namo, Du. naam), Lat. nōmen, Umb. nome, Gk. ονομα, O.Ind. nā́ma, Skr. nāman, Av. nąman, O.Pers. nāma, Toch. ñom/ñem, Arm. անռւն (anun), O.Pruss. emmens (from emnes), Sla. jьmę-jьmene (cf. O.C.S. imę, Rus. имя, Polish imię) Alb. emër/emën, O.Ir. ainmm, O.Welsh anu, O.Corn. hanow, Bret. ano, Kamviri nom; Hitt. lāman. Common modern words include Latin (from nomen, “name, reputation”), nomnalis, nominal, nomnā, nominate, dwinomnialis, binomial, komnṓmn, cognomen, denomnā, denominate, nnómniā, ignominy, nomnklatṓr, nomenclator, prainṓmn, praenomen, prōnṓmn, pronoun, renṓmn, renown; from Greek are nomnstikós, onomastic, -nomn, -onym, nnomnós, anonymous, antinomnsía (from anti), eponomnós, eponymous, euonomnós, euonymus, snteronomnós, heteronymous, somonomnós, homonymous, mātronomnikós, matronymic, patronomnikós, patronymic, nomntoqóiweiā, anomatopoeia, paronomnós, paronimous, pseudonómn, pseudonym (from Gk. pseudes, “false”) ksunnómn, synonym.

For PIE qéi, pile up, build, make, compare o-grade qóios, body (as in Eng. cheetah), as Skr. kāyaḥ; suffixed qóiwos, making, in verb qoiweio, make, create, as Gk. ποιεῖν, qoiwéitis, making, and as Greek suffix -qoiweitis, -poiesis, Gk. ποίησις, also from Lat. qoiweitía, poesy, qoíweimn, poem (Gk. ποίημα), qoiwéitā, poet (Gk. ποιητής), qoiweitikós, poetic, epoqoiwéiā, epopee, etc..

Similar root PIE qéi, pay, atone, compensate, gives Gk. time, Skr. cinoti, Av. kaena, O.C.S. cena, Lith. kaina, as well as common MIE o-grade qoin, fine, penalty, as Gk. poinē into Lat. poena, as in qoinalis, penal, qoinálitā, penalty, nqóinitā, impunity, qoinología, penology, qoinitoriós, punitory, supqoin, subpoena.

[20] For -qe, enclitic “and”, compare Goth, O.N. -u(h), Lat. -que, Gk. -τε, Messap. ti, si, O.Ind.,Ira. -ca, Phryg. ke, Ven. kve, Gaul. -c, O.Ir. -ch-; Hitt.,Luw. -ku, Lyc. -ke.

1.1. For modern European non-clitic words meaning “and”, compare especially MIE éti, “out, further”, also “and”, as Goth. iþ, O.N. i, O.E. edw, O.H.G. ita-, Lat. etiam, et (cf. Fr. et, It. ed, Spa.,Ca., i, Gl.-Pt. e, Rom. şi), Gk. eti, O.Ind. ati, Av. aiti, O.Pers. atiy, Phryg. eti, Toch. atas, aci/, O.Pruss. et-, at-, Gaul. eti, etic, O.Bret. et-, O.Welsh et-, at-.

1.2. Common Germanic untha (cf. O.N. enn, O.E. and, ond, O.S. endi, O.Fris. anda, M.Du. ende, O.H.G. enti, Ger. und), reconstructed as MIE ńti, is generally said to be ultimately from PIE ánti, in front, although more conceivably a zero-grade form of nasalized énti, from the aforementioned PIE éti. [Adrados]. Also, O.E. eac, “also” (as Eng. eke), Ger. auch, are used as the common conjunction in Da.,No. og, Swe. och, all from PIE aug, increase.

1.3. Slavic “a” comes from IE adverb ad, (older *h₁d), “and, then”, as Skr. fat, “afterwards, then, so”, Av. fat, “afterwards, then”, while Slavic “(h)i” comes from IE conjunction ei, and, if, as in Gk. e.

[21] For PIE -r, enclitic “for”, compare Gk. ar, ara, rá (Cypriot er), O.Ind. -r, Lith. ir, “and, also”, ar (interrogative).

[22] The Angles are members of a Germanic tribe mentioned by Tacitus, O.E. Angeln, from Lat. Anglii, lit. "people of Angul" (cf. O.N. Öngull), a region in what is now Schleswig-Holstein, in Northern Germany. The adjectives for the older inhabitants could then be reconstructed as Modern Indo-European Angliós. Modern adjective English is a common Germanic adjective, derived with IE suffix -isko-; as, Angliskós, Germaniskós, Teutiskós (along with ‘Classic’ Graeco-Latin Anglós/Anglikós, Germanós/Germanikós, Teutṓn/Teutonikós), etc.

The noun Germániā is from unknown origin. The Oxford English Dictionary records theories about the Celtic root gair. Another theory suggests gar, while the one that derive it from Gmc. gaizo- (cf. O.N. geirr, O.H.G. ger, O.E. gar, Ger. Ger) is one of the oldest theories proposed. It is still a common word in modern languages; as, Nor. germansk, Gk. Γερμανός, Rom. german, Ir. Gearmáinis, Sco. Gearmailtis, Arm. germaneren, Hindi Jarman, Alb. gjermanishte, etc. also in Non-Indo-European languages, like Maltese Ġermaniż, Hebrew germani, Georgian germanuli, Indonesian, Malay, Tagalog, Thai, Xhosa, Jerman, Amharic järmän.

[23] For Indo-European wĺqos, wolf (maybe wlqós, fem. wĺqia/wĺqī, also wĺqīs), compare Gmc. wulfaz (cf. Goth. wulfs, O.S. wulf, O.N. ulfr, O.Fris., Du., O.H.G., Ger. wolf,), Lat. lupus, Gk. λύκος, Skt. vṛkas, Av. vehrka-, O.Pers. Varkana- (Hyrcania, “wolf-land”, district southeast of the Caspian Sea), Albanian ulk, Lith. vilkas, O.C.S. вълкъ; Rus. волк, Ukr. вовк. Closely related PIE words are wail, wolf, cf. O.Arm. gayl, O.Ir. fáel, and wĺpēs, fox, cf. Lat. uulpēs, Gk. αλωπηζ, Skr. lopāśá, Av. urupis, raopis, Pers. rōbāh, Arm. aluēs, lit. lãpė, Ltv. lapsa. Such animals are also a symbol of lust in many old Indo-European dialects.

[24] PIE root bher, bear, carry, also bear children, gave Gmc. beranan (cf. Goth. bairan, O.N. bera, O.E., O.H.G. beran), Lat. fero, Umb. fertu, Gk. φέρω, O.Ind. bhárati, Av. baraiti, O.Pers. baratuv, Phryg. ber, Toch. pär, O.Arm. berel, Lith. beriù, Ltv. beŕu, O.C.S. бьрати, Rus. беру, Polish biorę, O.Ir. berim, Welsh cymmeryd, Alb. bie, Kamviri bor. With the meaning of give birth, compare Eng. birth, Goth. baurþei, Ger. Geburt, Lat. fors, O.Ind bhṛtíṣ, bibhrāṇas, O.Ir. brith, O.C.S. бьранъ. Modern derivatives include bhḗrā, bier, Gmc. bērō (cf. O.N. bara, O.E. ber, O.Fr. biere, O.H.G. bara, O.Fris. bere, M.Du. bare, Eng. bier); o-grade bhórnom, child, Gmc. barnam (cf. O.E. bearn, Scots bairn); suffixed zero-grade (ko)bhŕtis, birth, as Gmc. (ga)burthiz (cf. Goth. gabaurþs, O.N. byrðr, O.E. gebyrd, Ger. geburt, Eng. birth), bhŕtinios, burden, as Gmc. burthinjaz (cf. Goth. baurþei, O.N. byrðr, O.S. burthinnia, O.E. byrðen, Ger. bürde); compound root bhrenko, bring (from bher+enk, reach), as Gmc. brengan (cf. Goth. briggan, p.t. brohte, pp. broht, O.Fris. brenga, O.E. bringan, M.Du. brenghen, O.H.G. bringan); from Latin ferre are common MIE -bher, -fer, bhertilís, fertile, adbherénts, afferent, kirkombheréntiā, circumference, kombhero, confer, kombheréntiā, conference, debhero, defer, disbhero, differ, ekbherénts, efferent, enbhero, infer, opbhero, offer, prebhero, prefer, probhero, proffer, rebhero, refer, supbhero, suffer, transbhero, transfer, wokibherā, vociferate; prefixed and suffixed zero-grade próbhrom, reproach, in oppróbhriom, opprobrium; suffixed zero-grade bhŕtus, chance (from “a bringing, that which is brought”), as in bhrtuitós, happening by chance, fortuitous, bhrtū́nā, chance, good luck, fortune; lengthened o-grade bhōr, thief, as in bhortiuós, furtive, bhorónkolos, furuncle; from Greek pherein are o-grade noun bhóros, carrying, -bhorā, -phore, -bhoretis, -phoresis, -bhoros, -phorous, am(bh)bhorā, (from Lat., from Gk. ambhibhoreus), anábhorā, diabhorétis, eubhoría, metábhorā, peribhéreiā, bheromónā, etc.; suffixed bhérnā, dowry (“something brought by a bride”), as in parabhernáliā.

IE nek, reach, attain, gives o-grade prefixed (with intensive ko-) konóko, suffice, as Gmc. ganakh- (cf. Goth. ganohs, O.N. gnogr, O.E. genog, O.Fris. enoch, Ger. genug); variant Greek enk, carry, gives o-grade noun ónkos, burden, mass, hence a tumor, as Gk. ὄγκος, Skr. aṃśaḥ, as in onkogénetis, onkología; and Germanic bhrénko, bring, v.s.

[25] Attested derivatives from PIE reduplicate are zero-grade Greek q’qlos/qúqlos, circle, cycle, Gk. κύκλος, (from which L.Lat. cyclus, Eng. cycle), Toch. kukäl/kokale, e-grade qéqlos, wheel, as Gmc. khwewlaz (cf. O.N. hvel, O.E. hwēol, hweogol, O.S. hiughl, O.Fris. hwel, M.Du. weel), and Lith. kãklas, or neuter qéqlom, chakra, circle, wheel, as O.Ind. cakram, Av. čаẋrа, also found as metathesized qélqos, charkha, as Old. Pers. čarka-, or Osset. calx. Other derivatives from PIE verbal root qel, meaning revolve, move around, sojourn, dwell, include Lat. colere, “till, cultivate, inhabit”, not originally o-grade in PIE (from basic form PIE qelo- -> Lat. cole-), although left with -o in MIE for clarity, as in qolṓnos, setler, qolṓnia, colony, qoltós, cultivated, qóltos, worship, cult, qoltiuós, tilled, qoltiuā, cultivate, qoltósā, culture, nqoltós, incult, nqolínos, inquiline, etc; suffixed qéles, “completion of a cycle”, consummation, perfection, end, result, telos, gives Gk. τέλος, -εος (remember that PIE [k^w] becomes Gk. [p] or [t] before certain vowels), giving qeliós, perfect, complete, from which qeliología, teleology, qéliom, telium, qelio, consacrate, fulfill, in turn giving qelésmn, consecration ceremony, from which qelesmn (through Arabic tilasm, then It. talismano or Spa. talismán into Fr. talisman); from o-grade qólso-, “that on which the head turns”, neck, hals, are qólsos, Gmc. kh(w)alsaz (cf. Goth., O.N., Dan., Swed., Du., Ger. hals), and qólsom, as Lat. collum, from which derivatives qolsr, collar, deqolsā, decollate, behead, etc.; suffixed -qolā, -colous, and enqolā, inhabitant a Lat. -cola, incola; ánqolos, “one who bustles about”, servant, as Lat. anculus, giving dim. f. anqíllā, maidservant; qólos, axis of a sphere, pole, as Gk. πόλος, also -qólos, herdsman, as couqólos, cowherd, (from cōus, cow), as Gk. βουκόλος, giving couqolikós, bucolic; also, qóles, wheel, as Slavic kolo, koles (cf. O.C.S. коло, Russ. колесо, Pol. koło); suffixed o-grade qolénos, traffic, as O.Ira. -carana, as in wésāqólenos, “sale-traffic”, bazaar, as O.Ira. vahacarana (see wes), Pers. bāzār, hence also MIE partial loan words wesr or as loan word bazr, bazaar. Other derivatives include O.N. hjōl, Skr. cárati, Av. caraiti, Old Prussian -kelan, Lith. kelias, O.Ir. cul, Alb. sjell; Luw. kaluti-; zero-grade variant qĺin, again, as Gk. πάλιν, as in qlíndromos (from Gk. -δρόμος, racecourse), palindrome, qlínpsēstos, palimpsest, Gk. παλίμψηστος (from Gk. psēn, “scrape”)

Another common PIE word for wheel is rótā, from which Gmc. radō (cf. ON rǫðull, O.E. rodur, O.H.G. rad), Lat. rota, Skr. ratha, Av. radha, Lith. ratas, Ltv. rats, Gaul. Roto-, Ir. rath, Welsh rhod, Alb. rrath. Known modern derivatives are Celtic loan word towórets, formed by IE “do-upo-rets”, “a running up to”, which gives Mod. Eng. tory, from O.Ir. tōir, “pursuit”; also, retondós, rolling, which gave rotondós, round, rotund, as Lat. rotundus.

[26] Compare for PIE ghóstis, stranger, guest, Gmc. gastiz (cf. Goth. gasts, O.N. gestr, O.E. gæst, O.Fris. jest, O.H.G. gast), Lat. hostis, hospes (hostis-potes) O.C.S. gosti, OCS gostĭ, Russ. гость, Polish gość; Luw. gaši. Compound ghóspotis, host, (Lat. hospes, guest, originally host, “lord of strangers”), gives MIE ghospotālís, hospitable, and also ghospotális, hospital (from M.Lat. hospitale, meaning inn, large house, “guest house”), reduced as ghostális, hostel, from O.Fr. hostel, in turn from Lat. hos(pi)tale. For Hotel, a more international loan word with the same root, it could be used either as ghostális, or as a French loan word ghostél/ghotél; compare words with slightly different meanings: Eng. hostel-hotel, Ger. Gasthaus-Hotel, Swe. gstgiveri-hotel, Ice. gistihtel, Spa. hostal-hotel, It. ostello-hotel, Pt. hotel, Russ. гостиница (gostinitsa), Uk. готел (gotel), Pol. hotel, Cz. hostinec, Pers. hotel, Ind. hotel, and also in non-Indo-European languages, as Finnish hotelli, Japanese ホステル (hosuteru) - ホテル (hoteru), Korean 호텔 (ho-t'el), Thai โฮเต็ล (hō-ten), etc. The word for ‘hotel’ in Latin, however, was deuersorium, from the same root as Eng. divert.

[27] More PIE derivatives related to stáuros, (also stéuros, both from PIE ster) are Germanic (s)teuraz (cf. Goth. stiur, O.S. stior, O.N. stjórr, O.E. steor, O.H.G. stior, M.Du., Du. stier; Dan. tyr, Swed. tjur), Lat. taurus, Osc. turuf, Gk. ταυρος, Av. staora, O. Pruss. tauris, Lith. tauras, Ltv. tauriņš, O.C.S. turu, Rus. tur, Pol. tur, Gaul. tarbos, Welsh tarw, O. Ir. tarb, Oscan turuf and Alb. taroç.

[28] Indo-European nízdos, nest, resting place, is a secondary PIE root, from ni-, down, + sed, sit. Compare Gmc. nistaz, Lat. nidus, O.Ind. nidas, Skr. nīḍá, Arm. nist, O.C.S. гнѣздо, Russ. гнездо́, Polish gniazdo, O.Ir. net, Welsh nyth, Bret. nez. For mízdhos, compare Gmc. mizdō (Goth. mizdō, O.E. mēd, O.S. mēda , O.H.G. mieta), Gk. μισθός, Skr. mīdhá, Av. mīžda, Pers. muzd, meed, O.C.S. mĭzda, Russ. мзда́.

[29] PIE ker, horn, head, gave derivatives kŕnos, horn, Gmc. khurnaz (cf. Goth. haurn, O.E. horn, Ger. Horn, Du. horen), Lat.,Celt. cornū; kérwiks, neck, from Lat. cervīx; kérudos, male dear, hart, from Gmc. kherutas (cf. O.H.G. hiruz, O.N. hjörtr, O.E. heorot, M.Du. hert, Ger. Hirsch); kérwos, deer, as Lat. ceruus, Welsh carw; kŕsniom, Gk. κρανίον, Lat. cranĭum; kŕsnotom, hornet as Gmc. khurznutu- (cf. O.E. hyrnetu, hurnitu, Du. horzel); kerésrom, brain, as Lat. cerĕbrum. (compare also O.N. hjarni, O.H.G. hirni, Ger. Hirn); other derivatives include Gk. καρη, Skr. śiras, srngam, Av. sarah, Pers. sar, Toch. krāñi, Arm. sar, O.Pruss. kerpetis, Lith. szirszu, Ltv. šk̨irpta, O.C.S. чрѣпъ, Russ. čerep, Pol. trzop, Bret. kern, Alb. krye, Osset. sær.

[30] For PIE snúsus/snúsā, daughter-in-law, compare Gmc. snusuz (cf. Goth. schuos, O.N. snor, O.E. snoru, O.H.G. snur), Lat. nurus, Gk. νυος, Skr. snuṣā, Arm. nu, OCS snŭxa, Russ. сноха, Polish snecha, Alb. nuse.

[31] PIE nébhos, cloud, evolved as Skr. nábhas, Av. nabah, Lith. debesis, Ltv. debess, O.C.S. nebo, Russ. nebo, Polish niebo, O.Ir. nem, Cor. nef, Kamviri niru; Hitt. nepiš, Luw. tappaš-, Lyc. tabahaza. Suffixed nébhelā gives Gmc. nibila (cf. O.N. niflhel, O.E. nifol, O.H.G. nebul, also found in MIE patronymic Nebhelńkos, Gmc. Nibulunkhaz, as O.H.G. Nibulunc, Nibulung), also Welsh niwl, Lat. nebŭla, as in nebhelós, nebulous, and Gk. nephelē, as in nebhelínā, nepheline, nebhelométrom, nephelometer; from suffixed nébhes is Gk. nebhos, cloud, as in nebhelogía, nephology; nasalized némbhos, rain, cloud, aura, as Lat. nimbus.

For PIE mē, measure, compare derivatives suffixed mḗlos, meal “measure, mark, appointed time, time for eating, meal”, as Gmc. melaz (v.s.); suffixed mḗtis, wisdom, skill, as Gk. mētis, further suffixed metio, measure, as Lat. mētīrī, in nasalized p.part. mensós, measured, mensósā, measure, mensosālis, mensural, kommensosā, commensurate, disménsiōn, dimension, nmensós, immense; métrom, measure, rule, length, proportion, poetic meter (referred by some to IE med-), as Gk. μέτρον, in metrikós, metrical, diametrós, diameter, geometría, geometry, isometrikós, isometric, metrología, metrology, ksunmetría, symmetry; extended and suffixed forms mḗnā, month, moon, as Gmc. mēnōn (cf. O.E. mona), Gk. mēn, mēnē, in derivatives mēnopáusā, menopause, nmēnosréwiā, amenorrhea, etc.; for month, compare also mḗnōts, as Gmc. mēnōth- (cf. Goth. menoþs, O.N. manaðr, O.E. mōnath, M.Du. manet, O.H.G. manod, Du. maand, Ger. Monat), and Latin mḗnsis, as in menstruā, menstruate, menstrualis, menstrual, dwiménstris, bimester, dwimenstrialis, bimestrial, seksménstris, semester, triménstris, trimester, etc. (see also zero-grade suffix –m(ns)ris, month).

PIE mē referred also to certain qualities of mind, as suffixed o-grade mṓtos, mind, disposition, as Gmc. mothaz (cf. Goth. moþs, O.N. moðr, O.Fris. mod, M.Du. moet, O.H.G. muot, Du. moed, Ger. Mut), and Latin mōs, wont, humor, manner, custom, as in loan words (affected by rhotacism) mosalis, moral, móses, custom, mososós, morose.

Also, PIE mē, big, gives suffixed comparative mḗisā, greater, more, as Gmc. maizōn (cf. O.S. mera, O.N. meiri, O.Eng. O.Fris. mara, O.H.G. mero, M.Du. mere, Ger. mehr), Osc. mais, Gk. -moros, Av. mazja, O.Ir. mor; also, superlative mēistós, most, Gmc. maistaz; (Lat. maes, “more”, comes from meg).

IE med, take appropriate measures, measure, gives Gmc. metan (cf. Goth. mitan, O.E. metan, O.Fris., O.N. meta, Du. meten, Eng. mete, Ger. messen), also (ko)medā, measure, Gmc. (ga)mætijaz (cf. O.N. mætr, O.E. gemæte, O.H.G. gimagi, Eng. meet, Ger. gemäß); médio, look after, heal, cure, as Lat. medērī, in medikā, medicate, medikínā, medicine, medikós, medical, remédiom, remedy; meditā, think about, consider, reflect, meditate; suffixed medes-, giving (influenced by Lat. modus) modestós, “keeping to the appropriate measure”, moderate, nmodestós, inmodest; modesā, “keep within measure”, moderate, control, nmodesatós, inmoderate; medóntiā/medousā, Medusa, from Gk. medein, “rule”; suffixed o-grade módos, measure, size, limit, manner, harmony, melody, mood, as in módā, mode, modélos, model, modernós, modern, modidhakā, modify, modolā, modulate, módolos, module, modulus, kommodā, commode, kommoditā, commodity, adkommodā, accomodate; suffixed o-grade modios, a measure of grain; lengthened o-grade mōds, ability, measure, as in mōdo, have occasion, to be permitted or obliged, as Gmc. mōtan (cf. Goth. gamotan, O.Fris. mota, O.E. motan, M.L.G. moten, Du. moeten, Ger. müssen, Eng. must from O.E. part. moste).

[32] PIE verb gen, give birth, beget, produce, is a well-attested root which gives derivatives referring to aspects and results of procreation and to familial and tribal groups, e.g. génos, race, stock, kind, as Gk. γένος, Skr. janaḥ; génes, race, kind, gender, influenced by Italic rhotacism, as Lat. genus, generis, giving derivatives genesā, generate, generális, general, genestiōn, generation; alternate base gńa, giving cognate gńtis, natural, native, clan, kin, race, as Gmc. kundiz (cf. O.E. gecynd, Eng. kind), Lat. gentis, Gk. γένεσις, Skr. jāta, Lith. gentis; reduplicate gígno, beget, with past participle genitós, as in genitṓr, genitális, komgenitalis, etc., cf. Lat. gignere, Gk. γίγνεσθαι, Skr. jajanti, Av. zīzənti; gnāsko, be born, from Lat. gnāscī, as in gnātós, born, gnātēiuós, native, gntiōn, nation, gnātósā, nature, kognātós, cognate; praignánts, pregnant; génios, procreative divinity, inborn tutelary spirit, innate quality; engenuós, born in (a place), native, natural, freeborn, then ingenuous, and genuīnós, genuine; engéniom, inborn character, later engine, and engeniōsós, ingenious; endogenā, native, indigen; génmēn, germen, as in genmenā, germinate, genmenalis, etc. Other IE derivatives include Gmc. kunjam, Osc. genetaí, Umb. natine, Skr. janati, Pers. zāēdan, Phryg. cin, Thrac. zenis, Toch. kän, Arm. cnanim, Lith. gimdyti, Ltv. znots, OCS zętĭ, Russ. зять, O.Ir. ro-genar, Welsh geni, Alb. dhëndër/dhândër, Kamviri zut; Hitt. genzu.

[33] From PIE root weid, woid, see, know, compare Gmc. wītan (Goth. weitan, O.N. vita, O.S., O.E. witan, O.H.G. wizzan), Lat. uidēre, Gk. ιδειν, ειδοσ, οιδα, Doric Gk. woida, Skr. vēdah, Av. vaēda, Phryg. wit-, Arm. gitem, O.Pruss. widdai (from vidāi̯et), Lith. véizdmi, O.C.S. видѣти, Pol. widzieć, Rus. ви́деть, Gaulish vindos, O.Ir. ro-fetar, Welsh gwyn, Breton gwenn, Kashmiri vūčhūn. Derivatives include wéidtos/wéisos, learning, wisdom, knowledge, appearance, form, manner, as Gmc. wissaz (cf. O.N. viss, O.S., O.Fris., O.E. wīs, O.H.G. wiz, O.Fr. guise, Du. wijs, Ger. weise, Eng. wise); suffixed wéides, form, shape, as Gk. eidos, in wéidolom, idol, eidolon, as Gk. εἴδωλον; zero-grade form wídiom, knowledge, understanding, intelligence, mind, as Gmc. witjam (cf. O.N. vit, O.S. wit, O.Fris. wit, O.H.G. wizzi, O.E. wit, Dan. vid, Swed. vett, Ger. Witz), also nwídiom, ignorance (cf. Goth. unwiti); from zero-grade wídē, see, look, as Lat. uidēre, are widtós/wisós, seen, as in wísā, visa, wísiōn, vision, wisítā, visit, wisṓr, visor, adwísom, advice, adwisā, advise, enwídiā, envy, ekwidénts, evident, prowidē, foresee, prowisós, foreseen, nprowisós, unforeseen, nprowisā, improvise, enterwidē, interview, enwidiosós, invidious, praiwidē, previse, prowidē, provide, prowidénts, prudent, rewidē, review, rewisā, revise, superwisā, supervise, survey; suffixed widesia, appearance, form, idea, as Gk. ἰδέα; suffixed widtṓr/wistṓr, wise, learned, learned man, Gk. histōr, in wistoría; Ńwidā, Hades, the underworld, perhaps “the invisible”, as Gk. Haidēs/Aidēs; suffixed o-grade wóidos, knowledge, as Skr. vedaḥ.

[34] Indo-European qēl, far, gives prefixes qēle-, far off, from Gk. τηλε- (related to qēleos, Gk. τελεος, end, goal, result), and qĺai- [‘kwl̥-ai], long ago, Eng. paleo-, from qlaiós, old, ancient, Gk. παλαιός. This PIE base is possibly related (as a lengthened form) to qel, move around; cf. Skr. caramah, Welsh pellaf, Bret. pell.

English technology comes from PIE teks, weave, also fabricate, plait, cf. O.N. þexla, O.H.G. dehsa, Lat. textō, Gk. tektōn, Skr. takṣati, Av. tašaiti, O.Pers. ustašana, Pers. taš, Lith. tašau, Ltv. tešu, OCS tešǫ, Russ. tesla, Ir. tál; Hitt. takš. Common derivatives include tékstos, text, komtékstos, context, pretékstos, pretext; suffixed tékslā, web, net, warp of a fabric, also weaver's beam (to which the warp threads are tied), also found in adj. suptekslis, thin, fine, precise, subtle (<*sup-tékslā, “thread passing under the warp”, the finest thread); suffixed téksōn, weaver, maker of wattle for house walls, builder, tekstṓr, builder, tékstōn, carpenter, builder, as in tekstonikós, tectonic, or arkhitékstōn, architect (from Gk. arkhein, “begin, rule”); téksnā, art, craft, skill, as Gk. tekhnē, in teksnikós, technical, teksnología, technology.

Another common PIE verbal root for “weave” was webh, as in Gmc. webanan (cf. O.N. vefa, O.E. wefan, O.H.G. weban, M.L.G., M.Du., Du. weven, Eng. weave, Ger. weben), Gk. huphē, Skr. ubhnāti, Av. ubdaēna, O.Pers. baftan, Pers. bāfad, Toch. wäp/wāp, Alb. vegjë. A common MIE word is o-grade wóbhiom, web, fabric, as Gmc. wabjan (cf. O.S. webbi, O.N. vefr, O.E. webb, O.H.G. weppi, Du. webbe, Ger. gewebe), also as English loan word simply webhs, as in Wíralts Wit Webhs, World Wide Web, WWW; also, wóbh(i)o, move back and forth as in weaving, as Gmc. wab- (cf. O.N. vafra, O.E. wafian, wæfre, M.E. waveren, M.H.G. waben, L.Ger. wabbeln); suffixed zero-grade form úbhā, web, as Gk. huphē.

Proto-Indo-European wi, apart, away, is the source for adj. witós, wide, as Gmc. withas (cf. O.S., O.E., O.Fris. wid, O.N. viðr, Du. wijd, O.H.G. wit, Eng. wide, Ger. weit), and also for wit(e)ros, against, lit. “more apart”, as Skr. vitaram, Gmc. withros (cf. Goth. wiþra, O.S. withar, O.N. viðr, O.E. wið, O.H.G. widar, M.Du., Du. weder, Du. weer, Eng. with, Ger. wieder). Compare other derivatives as Skr. vi, Av. vi-, Hitt. na-wi “not yet”, O.C.S. vutoru, “other, second”, as Russ. второй.

[35] PIE root ag, drive, draw out or forth, move, set in motion, gives O.N. aka, Lat. agere, actus, Osc. acum, Gk. ἄγω, Skr. ájati, ajiráh, Av. azaiti, Toch. āk, Arm. acem, O.Ir. ad-aig, āin, O. Welsh agit; probably Hitt. aggala-, “furrow”. For more on ag, v.i.

[36] For root legh, lie down, rest, gave Gmc. ligjan (cf. Goth. ligan, O.N. liggja, O.E. licgan, O.Fris. lidzia, M.Du. ligghen, O.H.G. liggan), Lat. lectus, Gk. λεχώ, Toch. lake/leke, Lith. at-lagai, Ltv. lagača, O.C.S. lego, Russ. лежа́ть, Polish leżeć, Gaul. legasit, O.Ir. lige, Welsh gwal; Hittite lagi.

[37] PIE root peds, foot, is the original source for Gmc. fōts (cf. Goth. fōtus, O.N. fōtr, O.E. fōt, O.H.G. fuoz, Du. voet), Lat. pedis, Umb. peři, Gk. πεζός, Dor. πώς, Skr. раdám, Av. pâda-, Pers. pa, Arm. het, Toch. peṃ/paiyye, Lith. pė́dą, Ltv. pęda, OCS пѣшь, Russ. пе́ший, Pol. pieszy, Alb. poshtë, Osset. fad; Hitt. pata, Lyc. pede-, Luw. pati-.

[38] The verb klusinā comes from PIE kleu/klou, hear, and it has derivatives refer also to fame, word or loud, as Gmc. khlusinōn, ‘listen’ (cf. O.E. hlysnan, O.H.G. hlosen), khlūdaz, ‘loud’ (cf. Goth. hliuþ, O.N. hljóðr, O.N. hlud, O.H.G. hlut), Lat. cluēre, Gk. κλυω, κλέος (as in Ἡρακλῆς, Herakles), Skr. śru, srnoti, c̨rāváyati Av. sraota-, surunaoiti, sravayeiti, M.Pers. srod, Pers. sаrāуīdаn, Illyr. cleves, Toch. klyos, klāw, Arm. lu, O.Lith. šlãvė, šlovė̃, Lith. klausau, šlóvė, Ltv. klausīt, slava, slave, O.C.S. slusati, slava, slovo, Russ. слово, сла́ва, Pol. słowo, słаwа, Gaul. clu, O.Ir. clunim, Welsh clywaf, Alb. quhem.

The common Slavic word to define themselves, O.C.S. словѣне, словѣньскъ (reconstructed as an older base [k^jlou-], if ultimately Indo-European), is a demonym whose first reference is probably found in Ptolemy, who identified tribes called Stavanoi and Soubenoi, then translated (6^th century) as M.Lat. Sclaueni/Sthlaueni, M.Gr. Σκλαβηνοί/Σθλαβηνοί. It is thus probably related to either slava, fame, (as slaviane), thus “glorious people”, or from slovo, speach, (as slověne), therefore originally meaning “member of the speech community” (cf. Albanian noun for themselves, shqipetár, derived from shqipónj, understand), in contrast with the Germans, who were in O.C.S. nemici, related to nemu ‘dumb’. Compare with the Greek custom of using βαρβαρος to mean “foreign, strange, ignorant” (derivatives are Lat. barbărus, Eng. barbarian) from PIE base barbar-, echoic of unintelligible speech, like that of foreigners (cf. Skt. barbara-, stammering, also “non-Aryan”). Therefore, a proper MIE reconstruction for such Slavic term is Klowénos, Slav, for словѣне, and Kloweniskós, Slavic, for словѣньскъ, but – because the reconstruction is uncertain, and modern crossed borrowings are usual–, modern loan words Slawénos, Slaweniskós should be preferred.

For common MIE terms – which could be also written with initial klo- instead of slo-/sla-, compare: Slawénos, Slav; Slaweniskós, Slavic; Slowéniskā, Slovakia; Slowéniā, Slovenia; Sloweniskós, Slovak; Slowenikós, Slovene; Augosláwiā, Yugoslavia. The later is a compound of MIE reconstructed augs, southern, from ug- (proper IE reconstruction of Slavic jug-), originally referring to a southern wind, possibly ultimately from PIE root aug, with derivatives meaning increase, enlarge, as already seen.

[39] PIE root bhes breathe, blow, gave Skr. bhas-, Gk. ψυχειν, and is probably of imitative origin. Its zero-grade bhs- gives bhsū́khā [‘(b^h)su:-k^ha:], spirit, soul, originally breath, life, “the invisible entity behind the physical body” (personified as Psykhe, the lover of Eros), a MIE loan word (bhsūkho- in compounds) from Gk. ψυχή, with an unreconstructed Greek ending -kh-, probably PIE -gh- or -gh-. In light of O.Ind. bábhasti, some would reconstruct a metathesized IE sp-, hence MIE psū́khā.

[40] Preposition and preverb ksun, with, together, is common to Gk. syn, xun, and Slavic su-, so/s. Indo-European compound ksuwdus, council, from Slavic so-vetu, is also formed by O.C.S. вѣтъ, counsel, advice (a loan-translation in Gk. βουλή in ‘συμ-βούλιον’), which comes from PIE root weid, know (see Consonant Change in § 2.8.4), also found with this broader sense of speak, “share knowledge”, in Baltic, cf. O.Pruss waitiāt, Lith. vaitenù.

[41] IE gntiōn, nation, stock, race, lit. “that which has been born”, comes from gnātós, past part. of gnásko, be born, as Lat. natiōnis, natus, gnasci (ultimately from gen). Political sense has gradually taken over from racial meaning “large group of people with common ancestry”, and common derivatives include gnātionalis, national, or gnātionálitā, nationality, or gnātiuós, native, “innate, produced by birth”.

[42] PIE root for pŕksko is prek, ask, entreat, pray, and is cognate with Gmc. frēkhnan (cf. Goth. fraíhnan, O.N. fregna, O.E. frignan, O.H.G. frāga), Lat. prex, Osc. aparsam, Umb. pepurkurent, Skr. prac̨nás, prāś, Av. frāsa, Toch. prak/prek, Arm. hаrc̣аnеm, Lith. рrаšаũ, Ltv. рrаsu, O.C.S. просити, Russ. проси́ть, Pol. prosić, Welsh archaf, Ir. arco, M.Bret. archas. Common MIE derivatives include preks, prayer, as Lat. prex, and verb prekā, entreat, pray, as Lat. precāri, in prekariós, precarious, deprekā, deprecate, enprekā, imprecate; from prksko is extended p(o)r(k)sktolā, ask, request, postulate, as Lat. postulāre.

[43] Modern Indo-European words for “house”:

A. Derivatives from an original PIE root dem- are dṓmos/démos, house, ‘shelter’, are Lat. domus, Umb. dâmoa, Gk. δόμος, δῆμος (deme), O.Ind. dámas, Av. dąm, Toch. tam/täm, Arm. tun, Lith. namas, Ltv. nams, O.C.S. домъ, Rus. дом, Pol. dom, Welsh tŷ. Also common for lord, ‘house-master’, is dómūnos, cf. Skr. dámūnas, Lat. dominus (see Latin ablaut). From IE dōmn is Gk. δῶμα, dome. Probably from same root is base demo, build, giving démrom, timber, Gmc. temran (cf. Goth. timrjan, O.N. timbr, O.E. timber, O.Fris. timber, O.H.G. zimbar, Ger. Zimmer); also verb demrio, build, Gmc. timrian (build, cf. O.E. timbran, Du. timmeren, Ger. zimmern) and compare same root with other endings in Gmc. tumfetìz, (Eng. toft, from O.N. topt), Gk. δάπεδον, Lith. dimstis.

B. For ‘house’ in Germanic languages MIE reconstructs a common kúsom, dwelling, shelter, from Gmc. khusam (cf. Goth. -hus, O.N., O.E., O.Fris. hus, Du. huis, Ger. Haus), probably related to PIE root (s)kéu, cover, conceal. Compare in kéudhe/kéudhie, hide, conceal, Gmc. kluthjanan (O.E. hyde), Gk. κεύθω, and other derivatives like kéudhis, covering, Gmc. khudiz (cf. O.N. huð, O.E. hyd, O.Fris. hed, M.Du. huut, Ger. Haut), skéuiom, cloud, cloud cover, as Gmc. skeujam (cf. Goth. skuggwa, O.N. scy, skuggi, O.E. sceo, scua, O.S. scio, O.H.G. scuwo, scūr, O.Ice. skāli, skjōl, M.H.G. hode, Ger. Scheuer), Lat. cutis, scutum, ob-scurus, Gk. κύτος, Skr. kostha, skunati, Arm. cim, Lith. kẽvalas, Ltv. skura, Rus. kishka, O.Ir. cūl, Welsh cuddio.

C. PIE root kat, hut, shed is probably the source of Romance kasā (thus older PIE *kátiā) as in Gmc. kha- (cf. O.E. heaðor), Lat. catena, cassis, castrum, Av. kata-, Pers. kad, O.C.S. kotici, kotú, O.IR. cathir, Welsh cader. The different warlike meanings found are explained by confusion with a similar PIE root, kats, troop, battle, cf. O.N. hoð, O.E. heaþu, O.H.G. hathu, Skr. śātayati, Toch. /keta, O.C.S. kotora, Gaul. catu, O.Ir. cath, Welsh cad.

Compare also from other works, Swe. kåta, Nor. kota/kote/kåte (probably borrowed from Uralic kota, as Finnish koti, Est. kodu, Hung. ház), and also Skr. cātvāla-, Av. čāiti, Toch B kotai-, Alb katua, as well as other unexplained words like Bul. къща, Srb.-Cro. kuča, Slovene hiša, all meaning hut, shed, house, or hole, prison, some of them reconstructed as derived from PIE root ket, storage pit (Mallory-Adams).

D. Old Greek οἶκος (oíkos), house, comes from IE wóikos, which gave also Gk. οἰκία, house, and Gk. οἰκησις, dwelling, administration, and Gk. οἰκητός, inhabitant; in MIE, it has universal loan-translations like woikonomía, economy, originally “household, management”, from woikonómos, econome, “manager, steward”, woikología, ecology, woikosōménos, world, inhabited world (into Proto-Greek woikohōmeno- -> Att. Gk. οἰκουμένη [γῆ], “inhabited [land]”). It is the o-grade form of wéikos, village, dwelling, “group of houses”, (cf. Lat. uīcus, Skr. vesaḥ), as in weikínos, neighbour, weikínitā, neighborhood, or loan word wīllā (from It. villa, country house, villa, farm, from Lat. villa, in turn from PIE wéikslā). The noun is derived from PIE root weiks, clan, village, “social unit above the household”; compare Goth,O.H.G. weihs, O.E. wic, Skr. viś, Av. vīs, O.Pers. vitham, Toch. īke, Lith. viešas (cf. also O.Pruss. waispattin, Lith. viešpats, MIE wéikspots,“master of the house”, a compound equivalent to dems-pots), Ltv. viesis, OCS vĭsĭ, Russ. ves', Pol. wieś, Alb. vis,

MIE suffix -nomía, -nómos come from IE nómos, custom, law, usage, method, Gk. νόμος, in turn from PIE base nem, allot, distribute, divide, manage; cf. Gmc. niman (cf. Goth. niman, O.N. nema, O.E. naemel, numol, O.H.G. nëman, Eng. numb, nim, Ger. nehmen), Gk. νέμειν, Av. nəmah, Toch. ñemek, Lith. nuomas, Ltv. noma, Russ. nemoj, O.Ir. nem. Other known derivatives include nómesos/nómeros, number, division, as Lat. numerus, nómā, pasturage, grazing, hence “a spreading, a spreading ulcer”, noma, from which nómads is derived (Lat. nomas); also, nomismátis, Lat. numismatis, in nomismátikā, numismatics, from nómismn, current coin, custom (from O.Gk. νόμισμα, lit. “what has been sanctioned by custom or usage”), from IE verb nómiso, “to hold or own as a custom, usage, to use customarily, practise, to be used to a thing” (as Gk. νομίζω, in turn from νόμος). Also, Némesis, Gk. goddess of vengeance, from Gk. Νέμεσις, “indignation, jealousy, vengeance” lit. “distribution, partition”.

E. For Indo-Aryan ghar, compare a comon IE root ghers, court, yard.

[44] For PIE base pótis, powerful, able, capable; also lord, master, compare póto, “be able”, (from Lat. potere), from which poténts (Lat. pres.p. potens) and poténtiā; cf. also Gk. posis, Skt. patih, Lith. patis. Also found in compounds pósso, be able, (Lat. posse, from pó[ti]s, able, and [e]s, be), as in possibhilis, possible, “that can be done”, and possédē, possess (from Lat. possidēre, from po[ti]s, “as master”, and sédē, sit), which gives possésiōn, possession.

For PIE es (older *h₁es), be, compare Goth. ist, O.N. es, O.E. is, O.H.G. ist, Lat. est, Osc. súm, Umb. sent, Gk. esti, Skr. asti, Av. asti, O.Pers. astiy, Toch. ṣe/ṣei, Arm. ē, O.Pruss. asmai, Lith. esmi, Ltv. esmu, O.C.S. jestĭ, Russ. есмь, Polish jest, O.Ir. am, Alb. është/âsht; Hitt. asa, Lyc. es, Luw. as, Lyd. e-, Palaic aš-. Its origin is traced by some linguists to a dialectal pronunciation of eg-, “I”, in some early (influencial) Satem dialect; compare O.Ind. ásmi, “I am” (<PIE és-mi, from IE II *eg?->*es, cf. Skr. áham, “I”, from éghom), or Lat. sum, “I am” (from PIE ésom, cf. Ven. ehom, “I”, from éghom).

a. A proper Indo-Euroepan word meaning “owe” was PIE verb áik, be master of, possess, and áikos, master, owner; as Gmc. aiganan (cf. Goth. aigan, O.Fris. aga, O.N. eiga, O.E. āgan, O.H.G. eigan, Eng. ought), Skr. īṣṭe, iṣah, Avestan īšti, išvan-.

A similar IE root forms áiks, meaning spear, pike; compare O.N. eigin, Lat. īcō, Gk. αικλος, Av. išarə, O. Pruss. aysmis, Lith. iešmas, Ltv. iesms, O.C.S. igla, Russ. игла, Pol. igła.

b. For PIE sed, sit, compare derivatives sedio, Gmc. sitjan (cf. Goth. sitan, O.S. sittian, O.N. sitja, O.E. sittan, O.Fris. sitta, M.Du. sitten, O.H.G. sizzan, sezzal); sédlos/sédlā, seat, position, as Gmc. setlaz (cf. Goth. sitls, M.L.G., M.Du. setel, O.E. setl, Du. zetel, Ger. Sessel), Lat. sella, O.C.S. sedlo, O.E. sadol; suffixed stative sedē, sit, as Lat. sedēre, with p.part. sedtós/sesós, sat, giving sedentariós, sedentary, sésiōn, session, sédikom, siege, (from L.Lat. sedicum, although besiege from Lat. is situā, possibly from IE tkei), dissedē, disagree, dissedénts, dissident, adsedē, asist, assess, help, adseduós, assiduous, presede, preside, resede, reside, supsédiom, subsidy (but supsisdo, v.i.); Greek έδρα is IE sedrā, chair, throne, face of a geometric solid, hence loan translations ksunsedrós, sitting in council, ksunsédriom, council (from which Hebrew sanhedrīn, from Gk. συνέδριον), eksedrā, exedra, kátsedrā, cathedra, katsedrlis, cathedral, bishop’s see, qetrasédrom, tetrahedron; Also, from Latin sḗdēs, see, seat, residence, sēdā, sedate, settle, calm down; prefixed and suffixed pisedio, sit upon (pi, from epi). Other derivatives include Umb. sersitu, Gk. ἕζομαι, Skr. sad, Av. nišaðayeiti, O.Pers. niyašayadan, Pers. nešastan, Toch. sätk, Arm. nstil, O.Pruss. sīdons, Lith. sėdėti, sėdžiu, sėsti, sėdu Ltv. sēdēt, sēdu, Slav. sěděti, sědi̯ǫ (O.C.S. сѣдѣти, сѣждѫ, Russ. сиде́ть, сесть Pol. siedzieć), sěsti, sędǫ (cf. O.C.S. сѣсти, сѫдѫ, O.Russ. сѣсти, сяду, Pol. siąść, siądę), Gaul. essedum, O.Ir. saidim, Welsh seddu, Ir. suidh.

[45] For PIE gher with the sense of enclose, compare Gmc. gardaz (cf. Goth. gards, O.N. garðr, O.E. geard, O.Fris. garda, Du. gaard, O.H.G. gart), also Lat hortus, cohors, Osc. herííad, Gk. χορτος, Skr. gṛhá-, Phrygian -gordum, Lith. žardas, Ltv. zārds, Gaul. gorto, O.Ir. gort, Welsh garth, Bret. garz, Alb. garth-; Hitt. gurtas. Whether Balto-Slavic terms related to this root and beginning with [g] – as Lith. gardas, O.C.S. gradu, Rus. gorod, -grad, etc. – are independent developments or borrowings from Gmc. is unclear.

[46] IE ghrḗdhus, hunger, gives Gmc. grēduz (cf. Goth. gredus, O.E. grædum, cognate with Skt. grdh, Gk. -gyros) and adjective ghrēdhighós, hungry, as Gmc. grēdigaz (cf. O.S. gradag, O.N. graðr, O.Eng. graedig, Eng. greedy). From the same PIE root is ghŕtā, urge on, encourage (from Lat. hortārī, giving eksghŕtā, exhort), ghŕis, grace, favor (from Gk. χαρις, which gives ghrísmā, charism, or Eughrístiā, Eucharist), ghrē, it is necessary (from Gk. χρη, which gives ghrēstós, useful, and ghrēstomńdhia, chrestomathy). With the – possibly older – sense of bowels, compare Gmc. gernjan (O.N. gorn, O.Eng. gearn, O.H.G. garn, Eng. yarn), O.E. gorst, Lat. hernia, horrēo, Gk. χορδή, χέρσος, Skr. hirah, harṣate, Av. zaršayamna, Arm. dzar, Lith. žarna, Ltv. zarna, Russ. зор, O.Ir. garb, Welsh garw, Alb. derr; Hitt. karat.

[47] PIE root cei(w), live, oldest *g^weih₃, with metathesized variant cjo- (older *g^wjeh₃, coloured to *g^wjoh₃) gives derivatives ciwós/ceiwós, living, alive, as Gmc. kwi(k)waz (cf. Goth. quis, O.N. kvikr, O.E. cwicu, O.Fris. quik, O.H.G. quec, Ger. keck, Eng. quick), Lat. uīus; verb ceiwo, live, as Lat. uīuere; ceiwoparós, viviparous, living, alive, as Lat. vivipărus, and shortened cei(wo)parā, viper, “bearing live young”, from Lat. vipĕra (both from IE parós, v.s.) and further suffixed form céi(wo)tā, life, Lat. vita, in cei(wo)tālis, vital. Compare also O.E. cwifer, Lat. uīuō, Osc. bivus, Gk. βίομαι, Skr. ǰīvaiti, Av. gaēthā, jiġaēsa, O.Pers. gaithā, Pers. zēstan, Toch. śo/śai, Arm. keam, O.Pruss. giwа, giwāntei, Lith. gýti, gyventi, Ltv. dzīvs, dzīt, O.C.S. живѫ, жити, Russ. жить, живу́, Polish żyć, żyję, Gaul. Biturīges, O.Ir. bethu, Welsh byd.

For another common PIE adjective meaning “lively”, compare bherēs, as Lith. bruzdu, O.C.S. brŭzŭ, Russ. borzoj, Pol. bardzo, Gaul. brys, Ir. bras, and possibly Lat. festīnō (but cf. dhes).

[48] PIE root ser- gives séros, “guardian”, heroe, Gk. ἥρως, and general verbal base serw, guard, protect, in sérwā, keep, preserve, Lat. seruāre, sérwio, serve, as Lat. seruīre, and sérwos, slave, servant, Lat. seruus (forms also found in other Italic dialects, cf. Osc. serevkid, Umbr ooserclom, usually considered borrowings from Etruscan); compare also older forms as Av. haraiti, haurva-, Gmc. sarwia, Bal. serg-, Sla. stergt.

[49] To refer to a person, man, PIE had root man, extended as Indo-Iranian mánus, Germanic mánwos and Balto-Slavic o-grade móngos/móngios. Compare Gmc manwaz/mannaz (cf. Goth. manna, O.N. maðr, O.E. mann, O.S., O.H.G. man, Ger. Mann), Skr. manuh, Av. manu-, Pers. mærd, Kurd. mêr, Lith. žmogus, O.C.S. mǫžĭ, Russ. муж, Polish mąż, Kamviri mânša. Compare also with Ger. Mensch, Du. mens, Nor.,Da. menneske, Swe. människa, Ice. manneskja, from Gmc. manniskaz, IE mánwiskos, person, human (cf. Romany manush, from Skr. manuḥ). A common European borrowing is ḿbhudhsman, from compound ḿ(bhi)+bhúdhom(from Gmc. budam, O.N. bodh, “command”)+mánwos, ombudsman (with the exception of some regionally translated terms, as Fr. médiateur, Spa. defensor del pueblo, etc).

Some names for ‘German’, ‘Germany’, (Fr. allemand, Spa. alemán, Pt. alemão, Cat. alemany, Celtic, like Welsh Almaeneg, Bret. Alaman, Indo-Iranian, as Pers. almani, Kurd. elman; and even non-IE, as Turkish Alman, Arabic almanya, Azeri Alman, Basque alemanera, Guarani Alemaniagua, Malagasi alema, Khmer alaman, Tagalog Aleman), in turn a loan word from the tribal name that the neighboring Alamanni used for themselves. The term comes from Gmc. compound Ala-manniz, PIE reconstructed Alamánwis, with first word from PIE root al-, therefore originally meaning lit. “all men”.

PIE al, all, is attested in Germanic and Celtic. Germanic derivatives include alnós, all, as Gmc. allaz (cf. Goth. alls, O.N. allr, O.E. all, eall, eal-, O.Fris., O.H.G. al), and alo- in compounds.

[50] PIE stem (s)neu- (cf. Skr. snavan-, Arm. neard) is an extension of (s)nē, spin, sew. It gives derivatives nḗtlā, needle, (with instrumental suffix -tlo-), as Gmc. nēthlō (Goth. nēþla, O.S. nathla, O.N. nál, O.E. nǣðlæ, O.Fris. nedle, O.H.G. nādala), snótā, snood, as Gmc. snōdō, or nḗmn, thread, as Gk. νημα. Compare also Lat. neō, Gk. νειν, νηθω, Skr. snājati, Ltv. snāte, O.C.S. niti, Russ. нить, O.Ir. snáthat, Welsh nyddu, nodwydd.

[51] For derivatives of PIE root sti, hide, stone, also thicken, stiffen, compare stóinos, stone, Gmc. stainaz (cf. Goth. stains, O.N. steinn, O.E. stan, O.H.G., Dan. steen, Ger. Stein), and stjr, solid fat, from Gk. στεαρ; compare also Gk. stia, stion, Skr. stjajat, Av. staj, O.C.S. stena.

[52] PIE root pūr/pwr, fire, bonfire, is probably derived from an older *peh₂wr̥ (cf. Hitt. paḫḫur) and has an irregular Genitive pūnós. Compare Goth. fōn, Gk. πυρ, Osc. purasiai, Umb. pir, Skr. pu, Toch. por/puwār, Arm. hur, O. Pruss. panno, Polish perz, Cz. pýř. The suffixed form pū́ris, fire, gave Gmc. fūris (cf. O.N. fúrr, O.E. fȳr, O.Fris. fiur, M.Du. vuur, O.H.G. fiur).

[53] IE per means lead, pass over, as in adj. perwntós, rocky, noun perwńtos, mountain, as Skr. parvatah; pertā/pétrā, cliff, rock (possibly earlier “bedrock”, “what one comes through to”, as Lat. petra, Gk. πέτρα, both dissimilated forms), pértus, place for crossing over, ford as Gmc. ferthuz (cf. O.N.fjörðr, Eng. firth) or peritós, experienced (from Lat. peritus). Other derivatives include o-grade poro, journey, travel, as Gmc. faranan (cf. Goth. faran, O.E. fara, Ger. fahren, Eng. fare); póros, journey, passage, way, as Gk. πόρος; pórnā/pórnom, feather, as Gmc. farnō (cf. O.E. fearn, M.Du. varn, Ger. Farn, Eng. fern), Skr. parn̥am.; also, pōrio, lead, lead across, bring to safety, as Gmc. fōrjan (cf. O.E. gefera, O.H.G. fuoren, M.E. fere, Ger. führen). With zero-grade, common IE words are pŕtus, going, entrance, passage, modern ford, harbor, port, as Gmc. furthuz (cf. O.Fris. forda, O.E. ford, O.H.G. furt, Ger. Furt), Lat. portus, O.Welsh rit, Welsh rhyd; and pŕtā, meaning “gate” as fem. noun and “carry” as a verb, as in Lat. porta and portāre respectively.

The name Portugal is MIE Prtukálē, Port of “Kale”, as Lat. Portucale, with the second term of uncertain origin, although some relate it to PIE sources akin to Lat. Gallus, “Gallic”, Lat. calĭdus, “warm”, or Lat. calx, “lime”.

[54] English word “true” comes from O.E. triewe (W.Saxon), treowe (Mercian), faithful, trustworthy, from Gmc. treuwjaz (cf. Goth. triggws O.N. tryggr, O.Fris. triuwi, Du. getrouw, O.H.G. gatriuwu, Ger. treu), ultimately from adj. drewiós, related to dréwom, tree, oak, wood, Gmc. trewan (cf. Goth. triu, O.N. tré, O.S. trio, O.E. trēow, O.Fris. tre), both then alternative forms of PIE root dérus/dórus (Gen. derwós), tree, oak, fig. firm, strong, as in Lith. drútas, Welsh drud, O.Ir. dron. Compare other IE derivatives from deru-/doru-, also dreu-: Lat. durus, Gk. δρυς, δόρυ, Skr. dru, dáru, Av. dāuru, O.Pers. duruva, Pers. deraxt, Toch. or, Arm. tram, caṙ, O. Pruss. drawine, Lith. derva, Ltv. dreve, O.C.S. дрѣво, O.Rus. дрова, Rus. дерево, Pol. drwa, Gaul. Dervus, O.Ir. daur, derb, Welsh derwen, Alb. drusk, dru/drû, Kamviri dâa; Hitt. ta-ru, Luw. tarweja-, and also A.Mac. darullos.

[55] For IE root leu, loosen, divide, cut apart, compare léuwā, Gmc. lawwō (Swe. lagg, Eng. lag). For zero-grade forms, compare lūe, loosen, release, untie, from Gk. λύειν, lúēs, plague, pestilence (< “dissolution, putrefaction”), from Lat. luēs, and also solwo, loosen, untie, from Lat. soluere from PIE s(w)e-lwo-.

[56] PIE bels, bélis, power, strength, gives O.H.G. pal, O.Fris. pall, Lat. dē-bĭlis, Gk. βελτίων, Skr. bálīyān, báliṣṭhas, bálam, Phryg. balaios, O.Ir. adbal, M.Ir. bolg, Welsh balch, Kamviri bâlim. O.C.S. бол͂ии, бол͂ьши, болѥ, Russ. большо́й, Ukr. більший, Bulg. бо́ле.

[57] Indo-European father, patḗr, is possibly an earlier compound formed by baby-speak sound like pa (compare modern baby words in your language beginning with p+vowel), probably earlier *ph₂-, and IE common suffix for relatives -ter, a pattern followed in “mother” and other family members, too. It evolved as Gmc. fader (cf. Goth. fadar, O.N. faðir, O.E. fæder, O.H.G. fater), Lat. pater, Osc. patír, Umb. pater, Gk. πατήρ, Skr. pitár-, Av. pitar-, O.Pers. pitā, Pers. pedar, Toch. pācar/pācer, Arm. hair, Gaul. ātir, O.Ir. athir, Welsh gwaladr, Kashmiri petū́r, Osset. fyd.

[58] Indo-European bhátis, appearance, phase, gives Greek φάσις (phasis), hence also alternative MIE bhásis. It is derived from bhanio, “bring to light”, cause to appear, show, as Gk. φαινειν (phainein), from PIE base bhā, shine. It gives also derivatives bhantós, visible, bhántom, phantom, bhantasía, fantasy, énbhasis, emphasis, enbhatikós, emphatic, epibhánia, epiphany, bhaniómenom, occurrence, circumstance, also as loan word bhainómenon, phenomenon, both from Lat. phaenomĕnon, in turn from Gk. φαινόμενον, etc.

[59] For PIE ana, breathe, blow, spirit, compare Goth. uzanan, andi, O.N. anda, önd O.E. eðian, ōþian, Lat. animus, Osc. anamum, Gk. anemos, Skr. ānas, aniti, Av. åntya, Toch. āñcäm/āñme, Arm. anjn, hov, Lith. anuoti, O.C.S. vonja, Russ. von', O.Ir. anál, animm, Welsh anysbryd, anadl, Alb. ajë/âj.

[60] The reconstruction of common words for each day in a Seven-Day Week is almost impossible, if not through the adoption of numbers, from one to seven, like that used by the Roman Catholic Church (Lat. Feriae, used in Portuguese, see dhēs), Armenia, Greece, Iran, as well as in Arabic, Georgian and Hebrew. However, there seems to be a common old (pagan) pattern, followed in Greek (and partly in Sanskrit), and loan-translated from it in Latin and from this in Germanic.

PIE dhēs (possibly an extension of dhē) is the reconstructed base for words applied to various religious concepts, as zero-grade dhe(s)ós, god, Gk. θεός, in apodheósis, apotheosis, ndheós, atheistic, ndheísmos, atheism, endheosiasmós, enthusiasm (Gk. ἐνθουσιασμός), pántdheiom, pantheon, Gk. Πάνθειον; full-grade dhḗsiās, holidays, Lat. fēriae, (O.Lat. fēsiae), dhḗstos, festive, Lat. fēstus, in dhēstiwós, festive, dhēstiwális, festival; also, zero-grade dhásnom, temple, as Lat. fānum, in dhasnatikós, fanatic, prodhasnós, profane.

For PIE “feast”, a more common verbal root wes was used, cf. Goth. wisan, ON vist, O.E. wesan, O.H.G. wist, Lat. vescor, Skr. anuvāvase, Av. vastra, Lith. švest, Pol. wesele, O.Ir. fíach, Welsh gwest, Hitt. weši.

A. The word for “day” (as opposed to “night”) in Indo-European comes usually from a common dínom, originally “daylight”, derived from PIE root diw-, shine, and it is still found in Eng. lent, from Gmc. compound langa-tinaz, (probably lit. “longer daylight”, cf. Goth. sintīns, O.S. lentin, O.E. lencten, M.Du. lenten, O.H.G. lenzo); compare also Lat. nіn-dinae (also general diēs, as in Eng. diurnal, from alternative base djē-), Skr. dinam, O. Pruss. deinan, Lith. diena, Ltv. diena, O.C.S. дьнь, Russ. день, Pol. dzień, O.Ir. denus, día, Welsh dydd, Alb. gdhin.

B. Germanic ‘day’ comes from old PIE agh-, day, older *h₂eg^jh, considered as a span of time, hence “24 hours”, cf. Skr. ahar, from IE ághōr, Av. azan, from IE ághōn, and Gmc. dagaz, reconstructed as MIE (dh)aghos, with first dh- of unknown origin, although some try to relate it to PIE root dhech, burn, (which gave derivatives with the sense of “hot season”, “summer”, thus maybe mixed with -agh- in Germanic to mean “hot part of the day”, daylight); cf. Lat. fovēre, Gk. -πτανος, Skr. dahati, dah, Av. dažaiti, Pers. dāġ, Toch. tsäk/tsäk, O. Pruss. dagis, Lith. dagas, degti, Ltv. degt, OCS žešti, Russ. sžigat', žgučij, Polish żgę, Ir. daig, Alb. djek.

Here is a brief explanation of possible loan-translations of the names of week days into Modern Indo-European in three different calendars, Pagan (like Greek, Roman and Germanic, as well as Sanskrit calendars, the last followed in Indian timekeeping, i.e., modern Hindi, Telugu, Gujarati, Bengali, and even Tamil and Malayalam, beginning in Monday), International (beginning in Monday, similar to the traditional Slavic one), and Christian (counting in Dhḗsiās, feasts, from Ecc.Lat. Feriae, see dhēs), viz:

I. Monday should be Mntós (déinos), “(day) of the moon”. Compare Gmc. Monan-dagaz, L.L. Lunæ dies, Gk. ημερα Σεληνης, and Skr. Soma vāsara (Beng. Shombar). Also, ‘neutral’ Prwóm (déinom), “First (day)”, and Christian Seqondh (Dhḗsiā), “Second (Feast)”, i.e. “Feast following Sunday”.

PIE seq, follow, gives derivatives Gmc. sekw- (cf. ON seggr, O.E. secg, O.H.G. beinsegga), Lat. sequor, Gk. hepomai, Skr. sacate, Av. hačaitē, O.Pers. hačā, Toch. säk/, Lith. sekti, Ltv. sekt, Ir. sech Welsh hep. Common modern MIE words include Latin derivatives séqtā, sect, seqélā, sequel, seqéntiā, sequence, komseqénts, consequent, ekseqo, carry out, accomplish, ekseqotós, accomplished, carried out, ekseqotā, execute, opséqiom, present, opseqiós, obsequious, perseqio, persecute, proseqio, prosecute, supseqio, follow immediatly, supseqénts, subsequent; seqestḗr, “follower”, mediator, depositary, seqestrā, kidnap, seqéstrom, sequestrum, kidnapping; seqós, following, along, alongside of, as in ekstrīnseqós, from outside, extrinsic, entrīnseqós, from inside, intrinsic; séqnom, identifying mark, sign (from “standard that one follows”), Lat. signum, also séqnā, sign, adseqnā, assign, komseqnā, consign, deseqnā, designate, design, reseqnā, return, give back; suffixed sóqios, ally, companion (“follower”), in soqiabhilis, sociable, soqialis, social, sóqietā, society, soqio-, socio-, adsoqiā, associate, komsoqiā, consociate, dissoqiā, dissociate.

II. Tuesday is Ejerós (déinos), “(day) of the anger”, as it is the day of the gods of war; cf. Gmc. Tiwaz-dagaz, (althoug Tiw, from PIE deiw-, thus , is in fact etymologically related to Gk. Zeus and Lat. Iove, v.i.), loan-translated from L.L. Martis dies, ημερα Αρεως, “day of Ares”, and compare also Skr. Mangala vāsara (Beng. Monggolbar), identified with Karttikeya, the god of war. Compare for PIE eis, originally maybe denoting “passion, vigor”, hence ‘anger, wrath’: cf. Lat. īra, Gk. οίστρος, ἱερος, Άρης, Skr. isirah, Av. aēšma (as in Asmodeus, v.i.). English “iron” comes from Gmc. īsarnan (cf. O.S. isarn, O.N. isarn, O.E. isærn, M.Du. iser, O.H.G. isarn), borrowed from Celtic isarnon (cf. O.Ir. iarn, Welsh haiarn), from IE éjos (gen. éjesos, PIE root ejes-, older h₂ei̯es), originally metal (“vigorous, powerful material”); compare also Gmc. ajiz, (cf. Goth. aiz, O.N. eir, O.E. ār, O.H.G. ēr, ehern), Lat. aes, Umb. ahesnes, Skr. ayah, Av. ayaṅh, Pers. āhan, Gaul. Isarnodori, O.Ir. iarn, Welsh haearn. Also, Alteróm (déinom) or Christian Trit (Dhḗsiā).

III. Wednesday comes from North Gmc. Wodenaz-dagaz, “day of Odin” (cf. O.N. Ōðinsdagr, O.S. odensdag, O.E. Wōd(e)nesdæg, O.Fris. wōnsdei, M.Du. Wudensdach; but, from uncertain origin, compare O.Fris. wērendei, Du. wonseldach, South. Ger. guotentag, and even Eng. Wednesday and Du. waansdei, as well as Low Ger. and Du. dial. with initial g-), loan-translated originally from L.L. dies Mercurii, “day of Mercury”, in turn from Gk. ημερα Ερμου, “day of Hermes”, Lat. Mercurius (from merk-, Etruscan root for various economic aspects, as in merktos, market, or merkā, buy) and Gk. Ἑρμῆς, (also from unknown origin, with some relating it to ἕρμα, a square pillar), both equivalent to Skr. Budha vāsara (Beng. Budhbar), “day of Budha”, the name of the planet Mercury, a son of Chandra, the moon, in Hindu mythology, but the three are unrelated to the Nordic concept of Odin, the “sky-god”, equivalent to Lat. Jupiter or Gk. Zeus.

III.A. Indo-Aryan term Budha (and also Buddha) comes from IE zero-grade verb búdho, O.Ind. bodhati, budhjate, budhanta, “wake, observe, perceive, enlighten”, and noun búdhis, intelligence, reason, from Skr. bodhih, and budhs, awaken, enlightened, from Skr. buddhah, all from PIE root verb bhéudh, wake, rise up, be aware, and also make aware; compare also Gmc. biudanan (cf. Goth. anabiudan, O.N. bjóða, O.E. bēodan, O.H.G. biotan), Lat. fidere, foedus, Gk. peithein, pistis, Av. buidjeiti, Pers. bēdār-šudan, O.Pruss. budē, Lith. budinti, Ltv. budīt, O.C.S. beda, bljudo, Russ. будет, Pol. budzić, O.Ir. buide, Welsh bodd, Kamviri bidi. Due to the common meaning of anounce, hence message, messenger, herald, a concept akin to Sanskrit and Germanic sources (exactly the role of loan-translated Mercurius and Hermes), a good possibility for Wednesday in a pagan week would be Budhonós (déinos), “messenger/message’s (day)”, búdhōn, message, messenger, bode, as in Gmc. budōn (cf. O.N. boð, O.E. boda, bodian, O.S. gibod, O.H.G. gibot).

III.B. The new, non-pagan model (cf. M.H.G. mittewoche, M.L.G. middeweke, Du.dial. Midswiek, Fris. metswik, Norw. dial. mækedag, Mod.H.G. dial. Mittag, Eng.dial. Mid-week, and also unrelated Ice. þriðjudagur, “third-day”), influenced by Gothic, was probably adopted from Gk. or Lat. missionaries, avoiding the old pagan week, and is also found in Slavic – and Hungarian – srēda, lit. “middle” (cf. O.C.S. srĕda, Rus. sreda, Pol. sroda), loan-translated from Lat. media hebdomas, itself a loan word from Gk. εβδομάδα, from ἑβδομάς, seven, from PIE séptm (->Gk. ‘hebdom’, seven, “period of seven days or years”), which was translated in L.Lat. as septimāna, from Lat. septem; compare also words for “week” in Srb. седмица, Cro. sedmica, Bulg. седмица, Bret. sizhun, Lith. savaitė, Hindi हफ्ता (haftā), Hung. hét (from an Iranian source, cf. Kurdish heft, “seven”). Then, Medhj (Séptmā), “mid-week” should be used for Wednesday, as well as ‘neutral’ Trióm (déinom) or Christian Qetwrt (Dhḗsiā).

Other Indo-European terms for common periods of days:

III.B.1. From IE wíkom comes English “week”, Gmc. wikon (cf. Goth. wikon, O.N. vika, O.E. wice/wican, O.Fris. wike, M.Du. weke, O.H.G. wecha, Ice. vika, even Finnish viikko), originally “a turning” or “succession”, from PIE base weik/weig, bend, wind; cf. Gmc. wik- (e.g. Eng. wicker), waikwaz (Eng. weak), Lat. uix, uicia, Skt. visti.

III.B.3. Ltv. nedēļa is a loan word from Rus. неделя (nedélja), originally Sunday in Slavic languages, IE Nedhḗlā, Russ. не-делать, “no-work(ing day)”, composed of:

For PIE ne, no, compare Gmc. ne-, na-, (cf. Goth. ni, ON né, O.E. ne, O.H.G. ne, Eng. no), Lat. nē, ne-, Osc. ne, Skr. na, Av. na, O.Pers. na, Pers. ن, O.Pruss. ne, Lith. ne, Ltv. nē, Russ. не, нет, Polish nie, O.Ir. ní, Welsh ni, na, Alb. nuk, Hitt. natta, Luw. ni-, Lyc. ni-, Lyd. ni-; also common is zero-grade suffix n- [n̥], as Gmc. un-, Lat. in-, Umb. an-, Gk. a-, an-, Skr. a-, an-, Toch. an-/en-, Arm. an-. A common derivative is MIE nóin, no, none, originally “not one, not any” (from ne-óinos), giving Gmc. nean (cf. O.S., M.L.G. nen, O.N. neinn, M.Du., Du. neen, O.H.G., Ger. nein), maybe analogous to Lat. nōn, non- (although probably a nasal extension of o-grade negative particle nē).

PIE root dhē, set, put, place, (see dhē for MIE derivatives) gives Gmc. dēdiz (Eng. deed, Ger. Tat), dōn (Goth. gadēþs, O.E. dōn, O.H.G. tuon, O.N. dalidun, O.S. duon, O.Fris. dua, M.E. de, Ger. tun), Lat. faciō/fēcī, facilis, condere, abdomen, fās, Osc. faciiad, Umb. feitu, Gk. θήκη, θέμα, θέτω, τίθημι, Skr. dádhāti, Av. dađāiti, O.Pers. adadā, Phryg. dak-, Toch. täs/täs, Thrac. didzos, Arm. ed, Lith. dedù, dė́tis, Ltv. dēt, O.C.S. благодѣт, дѣти, дѣлати, Russ. деть, делать, Pol. dziać; działać, Gaul. dede, Welsh dall, Alb. ndonj; Hitt. dai, Lyc. ta-.

IV. Thursday is, after the Greek and Roman calendars, a day consacrated to Zeus and Jupiter respectively; cf. Gk. ημερα Διος (Gk. Zeus has gen. Dios), Lat. Iovis dies, both the “sky-gods” – compare also Hindu Guru vāsara, “day of the preceptor”, for Vjasa, the supreme preceptor of mankind, and Beng. Brihoshpotibar, “day of Brihoshpoti” (equivalent to Jupiter), the guru of the Devas and the arch-nemesis of Shukracharya, the guru of the Danavas. In loan-translated Gmc. thonaras-dagaz (cf. O.N. Þorsdagr, O.E. Þurresdæg, O.Fris. thunresdei, M.Du. donresdach, Du. donderdag, O.H.G. Donares tag), the day is dedicated to a Germanic god whose name is related to PIE root (s)téna, resound, thunder, as in Lat. tonāre, Skr. tánjati, Pers. tundar, Pashto taṇā; compare for IE tńros, thunder, Gmc. thunraz (cf. O.N. þorr, O.E. þunor, O.Fris. thuner, M.Du. donre, O.H.G. donar). Therefore, Diwós (déinos), “sky-god’s (day)”, Qturóm (déinom), “fourth (day)” or Penqt (Dhḗsiā), “fifth (Feast)”.

V. Friday is “Frigga’s day”, wife of Odin in Germanic mythology, goddess of heaven and married love, loan-translation of Lat. Ueneris dies, “day of (planet) Venus”, in turn translated from Gk. ημερα Αφροδιτης, “day of Aphrodite”, the goddesses of love, lust and beauty; also, Skr. Shukra vāsara (Beng. Shukrobar), where Shukra is the name for Venus, one of the Navagrahas, a male planet for the Hindus and named after the Guru Shukracharya. Ἀφροδίτη comes from Phoenician ^cAštart, “Astarte”, influenced by Gk. ἀφρός, foam, having parallels to Indo-European “dawn” god(desse)s, as Vedic Skr. Ushas, Lat. Aurora. Latin Venus comes from wénos, love, sexual desire, loveliness, beauty, charm, from PIE wen, strive for, desire; as wenwo, Gmc. winnwan (“seek to gain”, O.E. wynn, Eng. win), wńē [‘u̯n̥-e:], as Gmc. wunēn, (“become accustomed to, dwell”, cf. O.E. wunian, Ger. wohnen, Eng. won), wónejo, as Gmc. wanian (“accustome, train”, cf. O.E. wenian, Eng. wean), wńsko, as Gmc. wunskan (“desire”, cf. O.E. wyscan, Ger. Wünsch, Eng. wish); or wenésnom, Lat. uenēnum, “venom”. Compare also Lat. uenia, uēnāri, Skr. vanas-, vanam, vanati, vanik, vanijah, Av. vanaiti, Toch. wani/wna, wins-/winsk, Arm. gun, Cel. wenj (cf. O.Ir. fine, O.Bret. coguenou, Welsh gwen, Bret gwenn); Hitt. wen-, went- (for more on this root v.i. Sla. voin’, “soldier”). For Frigg, compare Gmc. Frije-dagaz (cf. O.N. frijadagr, O.E. frigedæg, O.Fris. frigendei, M.Du. vridach, Du. vrijdag, Ger. Freitag), from IE príjā, woman, wife – also Freya, goddess of love and beauty in Norse mithology – Gmc. Frijō (cf. O.N. Freyja, O.E. frea, O.S. frua, M.Du. vrouwe, Ice. Freyjudagr, Ger. Frau, Eng. Freya), itself from PIE root prai, like, love, which gave prijs, noble, dear, beloved, as Gmc. frijaz (cf. Goth. freis, O.E. freo, M.H.G. vri, Ger. frei, Du. vrij), and other derivatives related to free, love, friend, like prítus, peace as Gmc. frithuz (O.H.G. fridu, L.Lat. exfredāre, Eng afraid), príjonts, “beloved”, friend, as Gmc. frijands (cf. Goth. frijonds, O.N. frændi, O.E. frēond, O.Fris. friund, M.H.G. friunt, Ger. Freund); also, compare Gk. πραος, Skr. priyah, prīṇāti, Av. frā, Ltv. prieks, O.C.S. prĕjati, prijatelji, Russ. приятель, Polish przyjaźń, sprzyjać, O.Ir. ríar, Welsh rhydd; therefore, Ausós (déinos), “dawn’s day”, Penqtóm (déinom), “fifth (day)”, Sekst (Dhḗsiā), “sixth (Feast)”.

VI. Saturday is a partial loan-translation from Lat. Saturni dies, “day of Saturn” (where Saturnus was an Italic god of agriculture, poss. a borrowing from Etruscan), itself translated from Gk. ημερα Κρονου, “day of Cronus”; compare also Skr. Shani vāsara (Beng. Shonibar), from Sani, one of the nine Navagraha or primary celestial beings, embodied in the planet Saturn, MIE Satúrnos. Compare O.E. Sæterdæg/Sæternesdæg, Du. zaterdag, O.Fris. saterdi, M.L.G. satersdach; Ir. dia Sathuirn, Welsh dydd Sadwrn. However, an ancient Nordic custom is preserved in O.N. laugardagr, Dan. lørdag, Swed. lördag, lit. “bath day” (cf. O.N. laug, “bath”). Ger. Samstag (from O.H.G. sambaztag) appears to be from Vulg. Lat. sambatum, from Gk. *sambaton, a colloquial nasalized variant of sabbaton “sabbath”, also attested in Slavic (cf. O.C.S. sabota, Rus. subbota, simbata) and even Hung. szombat; also Romance (cf. Fr. samedi, It. sabato, Spa. sábado, Pt. sabado). The sabbath is observed by the Jews as a day of rest, and comes from Hebrew shabbath, prop. “day of rest”, from shabath “he rested”. Hence, only two names appear to be correct for MIE, IE traditional pagan Satúrni (déinos), and traditional Christian Sabbátom.

VII. Sunday, the last day of the week – first according to religious tradition –, is the “day of the sun”, Lat. dies solis, loan-translated from Gk. ημερα Ηλιου, compare also Skr. Ravi vāsara (Beng. Robibar); according to Hinduism, Ravi is Surya, the Sun. Therefore, the pagan version should be Sāwlós (déinos), “Sun’s day”, gen. of Swel, sun, v.i., and in Christian tradition, following Lat. dominicus dies, Gk. Κυριακος, (from Gk. κυριος, lord, with a different IE base), Kuriakós/Domonikós (déinos).

Indo-European root keu, swell, also vault, hole, gives o-grade kówos, hollow, as Lat. cauus, as in kowā (as V.Lat. cova), cave, kowérna, cavern, kówitā, cavity, komkowós, concave, ekskowā, excavate; kówilos, hollow, kowilía, belly, as Gk. κοιλία, and kówilom, coelom, as in Eng. derivatives -cele, celiac, -coel; kówos, hollow place, cavity, as in kówodeia, poppy head, Gk. κώδεια, which gives kowodeínā (-ínā, “alkaloid”), codeine; zero-grade shortened kúmolos, heap, mass, cumulus, as Lat. cumulus, kumolā, cumulate, or adkumolā, accumulate; zero-grade kūrós, “swollen”, strong, powerful, hence kū́rios, master, lord, as Gk. κυριος, as in kū́riakós, “of the lord”, as in MIE Kūriakóm [dōmn], Lord’s [dome] (from “house”, see dem-), as Late Greek kūriakon [dōma] (cf. Med. Gk. kūrikon, into W. Gmc. kirika, as O.E. ciricem, Eng. church, Ger. Kirche), used for houses of Christian worship since c.300, especially in the East, though it was less common in this sense than ekklēsía (from Gk. ekklesía, see kela) or basílikā (from loan adj. basilik, royal, Gk. βασιλική, from basiliós, king); kūweio, swell, and derivative kū́mn, a swelling, wave, with Greek derivatives as Eng. cyma, cyme, cymo-, kymo-; enkūiḗnts, pregnant, as Lat. inciēns (as Eng. enceinte).

Indo-European kela, shout, older *kelh₂, gives verb klāuo (from *klah₂), roar, low, as Gmc. khlōwan (cf. O.E. hlōwan, M.Du. loeyen, O.H.G. hluoje); suffixed klāmā, call, cry out, claim, as Lat. clamāre, as in klāmnts, clamant, klmōr, clamor, adklāmā, acclaim, deklāmā, declaim, eksklāmā, exclaim, proklāmā, proclaim, reklāmā, reclaim; kolā, call, as Gmc. khalōn (cf. M.Du. halen, Frank. halon, O.Fr. haler, M.E. halen, maybe also O.E. geholian); komkáliom (from kom-, together, and zero-grade *kĺh->IE kálio), meeting, gathering, council (“a calling together”), komkaliā, conciliate, rekomkaliā, reconcile; kaléndās, calends, from Lat. kalendae (first day of the month, when it was publicly announced on which days the nones and ides of that month would fall), giving kalendáriom, calendar; kálo (variant klē), call, as in ekkalo, summon forth, which gives ekklēsía, assembly, church, as Gk. ἐκκλησία; kálā, call, call out, as Lat. calāre, as in enterkalā, intercalate, nomnklātṓr, nomenclator; suffixed klārós (from zero-grade *kĺh), bright, clear, as in deklārā, declare; zero-grade extended kládtis, summons, division of citizens for military draft, hence army, fleet, from Lat. classis, also as MIE loan word klásis, class;

[61] . MIE Januários is probably from IE jános, Lat. Janus, ancient Ita. deity, guardian god of portals, patron of beginnings and endings, lit. "gate, arched passageway" from PIE eí, go (cf. Skt. janah). Other Roman months are Februários (loan word pl. of Lat. februum, purifications, unkn. origin), Mártios, (from Ita. god Mars, Mamers in Oscan, borrowed from the Etruscan deity Mariś as a war/agricultual god Mars and equated with Greek Ares by interpretatio romana), Aprílis (from Ita. godd. Venus, Etruscan Apru, possibly from Gk. aphrodite), Mágios (from Lat. Maia, from PIE meg, great), Júnios (from Lat. Juno, related to Eng. young), Djówilios (from Lat. Iūlius Caesar, from djeus), Augústos (from Lat. Augustus Caesar, from aug), Septḿmris, Oktōmris, Nowńmris, Dekḿmris, all from IE numbers following the Roman calendar (which began in March) and adj. suffix -m(ns)ris, Lat. -bris, from PIE base mēn-, month.

a. For PIE eí, go, walk, compare Goth. iddja, O.E. ēode, Lat. ire, iter, Umbrian ier, Oscan eítuns, Gk. ειμί, ἰών, Skr. ēti, imas, ayanam, Av. aēiti, O.Pers. aitiy, Toch. i, O.Pruss. eit, Lith. eiti, Ltv. iet, O.C.S. iti, idǫ Rus. идти, Polish iść, Gaulish eimu, O.Ir. ethaim, Kamviri ie; Luw. i-.

b. For PIE meg, great, compare derivatives mégos (Skr. maha-, Gk. μέγας, Phryg. meka-, Pers. meh), megilós (“much”, as Gmc. mekilaz, cf. Goth. mikils, O.E. micel, O.N. mikill, O.H.G. mihhil, M.E. muchel), magiós (as Lat. major), magnós (Lat. magnus); compare also Skr. mahayati, mahat-, Av. mazant, Illyr. mag, Toch. māk/mākā, Arm. mec, Gaul. Magiorīx, O.Ir. mochtae, Welsh Maclgwn, Alb. madh, Kurd. mezin; Hitt. makkes.

c. PIE root jeu, “vital force, youthful vigor”, and its suffixed zero-grade juwen-, give júwntis, youth, as Gmc. juwunthiz/jugunthiz (cf. Goth. junda, O.S. juguth, O.E. geogu, O.Fris. jogethe, M.Du. joghet, O.H.G. jugund), and juwnkós, young, as Gmc. juwungaz/jungaz, (Goth. juggs, O.S., O.Fris. jung, O.N. ungr, O.E. geong, M.Du. jonc, O.H.G. junc) and Celtic yowankos (cf. Gaul. Jovincillus, O.Ir. ac, Welsh ieuanc); compare also Lat. iuuĕnis, Umb. iuengar, Skr. juva-, Av. javan, Pers. javān, Lith. jaunas, Ltv. jauns, Slavic junъ, junьcь (cf. O.C.S. юнъ, O.Rus. ѹнъ, O.Bulg. юн, юне́ц, юне́, O.Cz. junec, junoch, Pol. junosza, junoch).

d. PIE aug, increase, gives Gmc. aukan (“eke”, cf. Goth. aukan, O.N. auka, O.E. eacan O.Fris. aka), Lat. augere, Umb. uhtur, Gk. αύξων, αὐξάνειν, Skr. ojas-, ugra, Toch. ok/auk, O.Pruss. auginnons, Lith. augu, aukstas, Ltv. augt. Common modern derivatives include augonṓmn, nickname, as Gmc. aukanamon); augméntom, increase, augment, áugtiōn, auction, from Lat. augere; augē, create, from L.Lat. augēre, which gives augtós, created, áugtos, creation, augtṓr, author, creator, and augtorisā, authorize; áugur, diviner (< “he who obtains favorable presage”, from “divine favor, increase”), from Lat. augur, as in enaugurā, inaugurate; augsíliom, aid, support, assistance, from Lat. auxilium, and augsiliariós, auxiliary. Also, variant metathesized form weg-, o-grade and extended with -s, wógso, grow, Gmc. wakhsan (O.S., O.H.G. wahs, O.N. vax, O.E. weaxan, Du. was, Ger. Wachs, Eng. wax), and wógstus, waist, Gmc. wakhstus (cf. Goth. wahstus, O.N. vaxtr, Swed. vstm, O.H.G. wahst); also, from the same IE base, compare Lith. vakas, O.C.S. vasku, Rus. vosk, Pol. wosk.

e. Compare for MIE mēns (gen. mntós), moon, month, cf. Lat. mēnsis, Gk. μην, Skr. māsah, Av. maoṅh, Pers. māh, Toch. mañ/meñe, Arm. amis, O. Pruss. menig, Lith. mėnuo, Ltv. meness, O.C.S. meseci, Russ. mesjac, Pol. miesiąc, O.Ir. mí, Welsh mis, Alb. muaj, Kurd. mang, Kamviri mos, Osset. mæj. In Germanic, “month” comes from IE mḗnōts, Gmc. mænoth- (Goth. menoþs, O.N. manaðr, O.E. monað, M.Du. manet, Du. maand, O.H.G. manod), “moon” from IE mḗnōn, Gmc. menon-, (cf. Goth. mena, O.N. mani, O.E. mōna, O.S., O.H.G. mano, O.Fris. mona, Du. maan). See also Proto-Indo-European mē, measure.

[62] For season, year, time, PIE had different words

A. From root jēr-, as jḗrom, year, season, cf. O.Pers. (duši)jaram, Gmc. jæram (“year, season” cf. Goth. jer, O.S., O.H.G. jar, O.N. ar, O.E. ġēar/gēr, Dan. aar, O.Fris. ger, Du. jaar, Ger. Jahr); jṓrā, hour, season, from Gk. hώρα (“hour, season, year” as in Mod.Eng. horoscope, hour); also, compare Lat. hornus, Av. jare, O.C.S. jaru, probably originally "that which goes a complete cycle", from older verbal root *h₂eí, go, v.s.

A.a. The best option for “season” in MIE would be to use jērós dítis, “year-time”, loan-translated from IE compounds like Ger. Jahreszeit, Fris. jiertiid, Du. jaargetijde, Swe.,Da. årstid, Rom. anotimp, Lith. metų laikas, Russ. время года, Pol. pora roku, Cz. roční období, Slov. letni čas, Bret. koulz-amzer, etc., as a compound from gen. of jḗrom, followed by dítis, time, as Gmc. tidiz "division of time" (cf. O.S. tid, Du. tijd, O.H.G. zit, Ger. Zeit), suffixed form of IE base dā, divide, cut up; cf. dmos, Gk. δῆμος, also Skr. dati, O.Ir. dam. and Gmc. tīmōn.

A.b. Greek word for “season” is IE epsogh, Gk. εποχή, epoch, from PIE roots epi, on, at, and sogh, o-grade of ségh, hold, as in Gk. εχειν, Skr. saha-, sahate; other derivatives are séghes (“victory”, cf. Gmc. sigiz, O.N. sigr, O.E. sige, O.H.G. sigu, M.Du. seghe), seghwerós (“severe”, cf. Lat. seuērus), sghol, (“school”, cf. Gk. σχολή), sghḗmn (“scheme”, cf. Gk. σχῆμα).

A.c. Also, MIE sátiōn, sowing, season, from L.Lat. sessĭōnis (O.Fr. seison, Eng. season, Du. seizoen, Rom. sezon), from Lat. satiō, “a sowing”, from pp. satum of verb síso, Lat. serere, a reduplicate verb from IE sē, sow, as Gmc. sēanan (Goth. saian, O.N. sá, O.E. sāwan, M.Du. sayen, O.H.G. sāen), Skr. sāyaka, Toch. sāry, Lith. seju, sėti, Ltv. sēt, sĕti, O.C.S. sejo, sejati, Russ. сеять, Pol. siać, Welsh hil, O.Ir. sí, and Hitt. sai. It gave also sḗmēn, seed, semen, sperm (cf. Lat. semen, Umb. semenies, O.H.G. samo, O.Prus. semen, O.C.S. seme, Rus. семя, Ger. Samen, even Finn. siemen), and sḗtis, seed, as in Gmc. sēdiz (cf. O.N. sað, O.S. sad, O.Fris. sed, M.Du. saet, O.H.G. sat, Ger. Saat).

A.d. Other word is státiōn, from Lat. statĭōnis (cf. Spa. estación, Pt. estação, Cat. estació), from IE sta(n)t-, giving Gmc. standan (cf. O.S., Goth.,O.E. standan, O.N. standa, O.H.G. stān, Swed. stå, Du. staan), and other derivatives like IE statós, L. status, Gk. στατός, Lith. statau, ultimately from PIE stā, stand, with derivatives meaning “set down, make or be firm” and “place or thing that is standing”, as in IE stṓdhā, stallion, studhorse, steed, from Gmc stōdō (cf. O.N. stoð, O.H.G. stuot, O.E. stod, M.H.G. stud, M.L.G. stod, Ger. Stute, and also O.C.S. stado, “herd”, Lith. stodas, “a drove of horses”); compare L. sistere, stō (from older stāiō) Umb. stahmei, Osc. staíet, Gk. ἵστασθαι, ἱστός, στῦλος, Skt. tiṣṭhati, Av. hištaiti, O.Pers. aištata, Pers. istādan, -stan (country, lit. “where one stands”), Phryg. eistani, Toch. ṣtām/stām, Arm. stanam, O. Pruss. роstāt, stacle, Lith. stojus, Ltv. stāt, O.C.S. стояти, стоѬ, stanu, staru (old, lit. “long-standing”), O.Russ. стати, стану, Pol. stoję, stać, O.Ir. táu (from older stāiō), sessam, Welsh gwastad, Alb. shtuara; Hitt. išta, Luw. išta-, Lyc. ta-

A.e. Hindustani mausam (Hindi मौसम, Urdu موسم) comes fromPersian موسم, in turn from Arabic مَوْسِم., weather, season, time.

B. Romance languages have words derived from PIE átnos, year (from “a period gone trough”), which gave Germanic and Italic words, cf. Goth. aþnam, Lat. annus (modern Romance Fr.,Rom. an,It. anno, Pt. ano, Spa. año, Cat. any), Osc.,Umb. akno-, from IE at, go, as in Skr. atati.

C. Modern Slavic languages have different words for “year, season”.

C.a Some dialects have IE o-grade ghodhós, originally fit, adequate, belonging together (v.i. for Eng. good), which developed into O.C.S. годъ, time, “pleasing time", giving O.Rus. годъ, Cro. godina, Bulg. година (cf. Ukr. годi, Pol. gody, Cz. hod, Bulg. годе́, Srb. го̑д, Slov. gȏd), also adopted in Ltv. gads (cf. ‘proper’ Latvian derivatives, gadigs, gadit), ultimately from PIE base ghedh, unite, “be associated, suitable", also with the meaning of “good”.

C.b. Another common Slavic word is Pol., Cz., Slovak rok, Ukr. рік (also, cf. Russ. с-рoк), from O.C.S. рѫка, arm, hand (cf. Russ. рука, Ukr.,Bel. рука́, Slov. róka, Pol. ręka), also found in Lith. rankà (gen. rañką), Ltv. rùoka, “hand” (cf. Russ. rаnсkо, gen. rānkan, Lith. renkù, rinkaũ, riñkti, parankà) with the year as a notion of a “cubit measurement of time”; the word is believed to be ultimately from a source akin to a nasal extended IE wŕnkā [‘wr̥-n̥-ka:], from PIE wer, turn, bend (maybe through O.Ind. vrag, “corner, angle”, vrangr, “scythe”).

C.c. Finally, compare Slovene leto, Russ.pl. лет, Pol. lata, Cz., Slovak. leto (cf. also Russ. лето, Pol. lato, “summer”), possibly cognate with O.Ir. laithe, day, reconstructed as common PIE lḗtom.

D. In Celtic, a common isolated root is found, MIE bhled-, cf. O.Ir. bladain, Ir. bliain, Sc. bliadhna, Welsh blwyddyn, Bret. bloaz, Corn. bledhen.

F. Another PIE word with a similar meaning is wet-, year, age, (cf. Alb. vit), which gives derivatives wétrus, yearling, as Gmc. wethruz (wether, cf. Goth. wier, O.S. wethar, O.H.G. widar, Ger. Widder), wétes, year, age, old, as Lat. vetus, veteris or Gk. ἔτος; wétolos/wétolom, yearling, as Lat. vitulus and Gk. ἔταλον; compare also Skr. vatsaḥ, Osc. vezkeí, O.Lith. vetušas, O.C.S. vetŭcŭ, Russ. ве́чный, Pol. wiotchy, O.Ir. fethim, Corn. guis, Alb. vjet; Hitt. witt.

I For Summer:

I.a. PIE root séma, summer, gives Sḿaros, and also sémā, season; compare Gmc. sumaraz (cf. O.N.,O.S. sumar, O.E. sumor, O.F. sumur, M.Du. somer, O.H.G. sumar), Skr. samā, Av. hama, Toch. ṣme/ṣmāye, Arm. amaṙ, Kurdish havîn; it is also a common Celtic word, cf. O.Ir. samain, samuin, samfuin, Ir. Samhain, Sc. Samhradh, O.Welsh ham, Welsh haf, Bret. hañv.

I.b. For Lat. aestātis (cf. Fr. été, It. estato, Cat. estiu, also secondary Spa. estío, Pt. estio) a MIE Aistā (from older aidht(o)-tā) is reconstructed, from common PIE root aidh, burn, illuminate; cf. Lat. aedēs, Gk. αἴθω, O.Ind. šṭakā, índdhḗ (nasalized form), Av. aēsma-, Lith. íesmė, O.Cz. niestějě, Slov. istė́je.

I.c. Another common form is derived from Wesr, spring (vide infra), as Lat. veranum (tempus), “(time) of spring” (cf. Spa. verano, Pt. verão, Rom. vară), Lith.,Ltv. vasara, Alb. verë.

I.d. For the common Slavic word, MIE reconstructs n. Lḗtom (cf. Russ. лето, Pol. lato, Cz. léto, Srb.-Cro. ljeto) vide supra.

II. MIE has for Autumn, Fall, different Indo-European words referring to “harvest”.

II.a. Kérpistos, harvest, Gmc. *kharbistas (cf. Goth. ƕaírban, O.N. hverfa, O.S. hervist, O.E. hærfest, O.H.G. hwerban, Du. herfst, Ger. Herbst), from PIE kerp, pluck, gather, harvest (cf. Lat. carpere, Gk. καρπος, Skr. krpana-, Toch. kārp/kärp, Lith. kerpu, O.Ir. carr, M.Ir. cerbaim, Welsh par).

II.b. Ósōn (Gen. Osnós), from older *h₃esh₃en, harvest, as in Balto-Slavic, giving O. Pruss. assanis, Rus. осень, Ukr. осінь, Pol. jesień, Srb.-Cro. jesen, Slovak jeseň, and also osnoio, earn, from Gmc. aznojanan (cf. Goth. asans, O.N. önn, O.E. earnian, esne, O.H.G. aran, Ger. Ernte); other derivatives are Lat. annōna, Gk. οπωρ, Arm. ashun.

II.c. Autúmnos (Lat. Autumnus, of Etruscan origin), is the most common word in Romance languages and Brit. Eng.

II.d. In Baltic ‘autumn’ is found as Ltv. rudens, Lith. ruduo, originally “red season”, derived from PIE reudhós, red, ruddy. Compare Gmc. rauthaz (cf. Goth. rauþs, O.N. rauðr, O.E. rēad, Dan. rød, O.Fris. rad, M.Du. root, O.H.G. rōt), Lat. ruber, (Lat.dial. rufus), Osc. rufriis, Umb. rufru, Gk. ἐρυθρός; Skr. rudhira-, Av. raoidita-, Toch. rtär/ratre, O.C.S. rudru, Rus. рдеть, румяный, Pol. rumiany; Lith. raudas, Ltv. ruds, Gaul. Roudos, O.Ir. ruad, Welsh rhudd, Bret. ruz.

III. For MIE Winter.

III.a. There is a common PIE base Ghéimn, snow, winter; compare O.N. gói, Lat. hiems (from alternative IE ghjéms), Gk. χειμα (Mod. Gk. χειμώνας), Skr. heman, Av. zimo, Pers. زمستان (zemestān), dai, Toch. śärme/śimpriye, Arm. dzmeṙ, Old Prussian semo, Lith. žiema, Ltv. ziema, OCS zima, Russ. зима, Polish zima, Gaul. Giamillus, Ir. gaimred, Sc. Geamhradh, Welsh gaeaf, geimhreadh, Bret. goañv, Alb. dimër/dimën, Kurdish zivistan, zistan, Kamviri zẽ; Hittite gimma-. From the same root, compare ghéimrinā, hibernate, from Lat. hibernāre, from which also (témpus) ghéimrinom, Lat. (tempus) hibernum, “time of winter” (cf. Fr. hiver, Ita.,Pt. inverno, Spa. invierno, Rom. iarnă), or ghímriā [‘g^hi-mr̥-i̯a], chimera, from Gk. χίμαιρα.

III.b. In Germanic, however, the word comes from Gmc. wentruz (cf. Goth. wintrus, O.N. vetr, O.E., O.Fris., Du. winter, O.S., O.H.G. wintar, Ger. winter, Dan., Swed. vinter), thus IE Wéndrus, “watery season”, from PIE root wed-/wod-/ud-, wet, water. Compare for IE general wódr/udr (or nasalized wóndr/undr), Gmc. watar, (cf. Goth. watō, O.N. vatn,O.E. wæter, O.H.G. wazzar, O.Fris. wetir, Du. water), Lat. unda, Umb. utur, Gk. ύδωρ, Skr. udan, Toch. wär/war, Phryg. bedu, Thrac. udrēnas, Arm. get, O. Pruss. wundan, Lith. vanduo, Ltv. ūdens, O.C.S., O.Russ. вода, Pol. woda, O.Ir. uisce, Welsh gwer, Alb. ujë, Kashmiri odūr; also, Hitt. watar, and Ancient Macedonian bedu. And for alternate form údros, water, “water-creature”, otter, cf. Gmc. utraz (cf. O.N. otr, O.E. oter, O.H.G. ottar, Swed. utter, Dan. odder, Du. otter,), Lat. lutra, Gk. ὑδρος, Skr. udra, Av. udra, Lith. ūdra, O.C.S. vydra, Russ. vydra, O.Ir. uydr, odoirne Ir. odar, Osset. wyrd; also, derivative ú(n)deros, belly, compare Ger. wanast, Lat. uterus, uenter, Skr. udara, Av. udaras, Lith. vėdaras, Ltv. vēders. As with IE “fire” (pwr-égnis), Indo-European had two different roots for “water”, one inanimate, referring to an inanimate substance, and the other, pos, water (animate), referring to water as a living force (cf. Sk. apaḥ), which comes probably from an older IE II root *h₂p-, giving PIE pískos, fish, older *h₂p-isko-, cf. Gmc. fiskaz (cf. Goth. fisks, O.N. fiskr, O.E. fisc, O.H.G. fisc, Du. vis, Ger. Fisch), Lat. piscis, Russ. peskar', Polish piskorz, O.Ir. asc, Welsh pysgodyn.

IV. For Modern Indo-European Spring:

IV.a. The common PIE word was Wesr [we-sr̥]; compare O.N. var, Swe. vår, Lat. vēr, from which L.Lat. prima vera (cf. Spa.,Pt.,It. primavera, Rom. primăvară), Gk. έαρ, Skt. vasantah, Pers. ب (bāhār), Kur. bihar, Lith. vasara, Lith.,Ltv. pavasaris, O.C.S. vesna, Russ. весна, Pol. wiosna, Gael. Earrach, and even Turkish ilkbahar, bahar, a borrowing from Iranian.

IV.b. The spring is usually considered the first season, hence the common resource of taking words for ‘fore’ or ‘early’ followed by ‘year’, as MIE Prōjḗrom/Prājḗrom; cf. Dan. forår, Du. voorjaar, Ger. Frühjahr, Bul. пролет, Srb.-Cro. proljeće, Slovene pomlad, Alb. pranverë, originally lit. “fore-year”; also, Ger. Frühling, from M.H.G. vrueje, or Cz. jaro, Slovak jar, from jḗrom. Also, in French, the older primevère was substituted in the 16th c. for printemps, O.Fr. prin tans, tamps prim, from Lat. tempus primum, lit. “first time, first season”, which also influenced Mid.Eng. prime-temps; cf. also Faer. maitiid. For “fore” in compounds, there is IE prā [pr̥-ā], before, as Gmc. fura (cf. Goth. faiura, O.N. fyrr, O.E. fore, O.Fris. fara, O.H.G. fora, Ger. vor-), Gk. πάρος, Skr. purā, Av. paro, Hittite para-, as well as IE pro-/prō, before, in front of, as Gmc. fra- (cf. Goth. fram, O.N. frā, O.E. fram, Scots fro, Ger. vor-), Ita. pro-, Gk. προ-, Ind. pra-, Slav. pra-, Celt. ro-; although Eng. “fore” itself comes from PIE per/pr-, base of prepositions with meanings like forward, through, and other extended senses, v.i.

IV.c. Another common Germanic term is Dlónghodéinos, as Gmc. langa-tinaz, lit. “long-day”, (cf. O.S. lentin, O.E. lencten, M.Du. lenten, O.H.G. lenzo, Eng. Lent, Du. lente, Ger. Lenz), from dlo(n)ghós – maybe an older common, difficult-to-pronounce dlnghós [dl̥-n̥-‘g^hos] –, long, as Gmc. lanngaz (cf. Goth. laggs, O.N. langr, O.E.,O.H.G. lang, M.Du. lanc), Lat. longus, Gk. δολιχός, Skr. dīrgha, Av. darəga, O.Pers. darga, Pers. derāz, O.Pruss. ilgi, Lith. ilgas, Ltv. ilgs, OCS dlŭgŭ, Russ. dolgij, Pol. długi, Gaul. Loggostalētes, O.Ir. long, Welsh dala, Alb. gjatë, Kashmiri dūr, Hitt. dalugaes; and IE déinos, a root meaning “day”, vide infra. The compound probably refers to the increasing daylight in Spring.

[63] Indo-European root Djéus/Déiwos (the later possibly formed by e-insertion of zero-grade diw-), means originally shine, usually sky, heaven, hence sky god; cf. Gmc. Tīwaz (O.N. Tyr, Eng. Tiu, also in Tuesday), Lat. deus, Iovis, as in Iuppiter (from older Djóu páter, “o father Iove” cf. O.Ind. devaḥ pitar, Gk. Zeus pater), Gk. Ζεύς, gen. Διός, Skr. devah (as in Devanāgarī), O.Pers. daēva-(as in Asmodeus), O.C.S. deivai, Lith. devas. From zero-grade djóus is extended djówis, Lat. Iouis, “Jupiter”, as adjective djowiliós, “descended from Jupiter”, Lat. Iūlius (name of a Roman gens), into Djówilios, July. The form déiwos, as Gmc. tīwaz, Lat. deus, gives deiwísmos, deism, déiwitā, deity, deiwidhakós, deific, addéiwos, bye (“I commend you to God”, cf. Fr.,Eng.,Ger. adieu, It. addio, Spa. adiós, Pt. adeus, Cat. adeu, Nor. adjø, Swe. adjö, Gk. αντίο, Slo. adijo, Lux. äddi, Papiamento ayo, etc.); also, from Lat. dīuus, loan words dwos, famous artist (fem. dwā, diva), and deiwinós, divine; déiwes, rich (“fortunate, blessed, divine”), as Lat. diues; diwiós, heavenly, as in Diwiánā, Diana, as Lat. Diāna, moon goddess; variant djē (from *djeh-), day, as in djālis, daily, dial, djariós, diary, djḗtā, daily routine, diet, national or local legislative assembly (alteration influenced by djē from diáitā, way of living, diet, from Gk. δίαιτα into Lat. diaeta), djurnós, diurnal, “of the day”, daily, as in djurnlis, diurnal, daily, hence “breviary, journal” (from Fr. journal), and also “salary” (from Prov. jornal), djúrnom, day, djurntā, day, day’s travel, journey, medhīdjē, midday (from medhiei djē, from locative of médhjos, middle), midday, which gives medhīdjnos, “of or at midday”, also as MIE loan words merīdjānos, meridian, and adjective, merīdjānós, “of or relating to a meridian, meridional” from Lat. merīdiānus, qōtidjānós, quotidian; dejalós, clear, evident, as Gk. δήλη, as in bhsūkhodej(a)likós, psychedelic, (see bhes) an English loan word using Greek loan words. Also, with the sense of shining, clear, day, compare Goth. sinteins, Lat. diēs, Gk. δήλος, Skt. diva, O.Ind. dinam, Welsh diw, Bret. deiz, Arm. tiw, Prus. deinan, Lith., Latv. diena, O.C.S. дьнь, Pol. dzien, Ukr., Rus. день, etc.

The origin of Germanic word for “God” is probably Gmc. guthan (cf. Goth. guþ, O.E. god, O.N. guð, Du. god, Ger. Gott), from zero-grade ghútom, God, ”the invoked” (cf. Skr. huta-, invoked, an epithet of Indra), from PIE ghwa, call, invoke, although some trace it to ghúde “poured, libated”, from PIE root gheu, pour, pour a libation; as Gmc. giutan (cf. Goth. giutan, ON gjta, O.E. guttas, O.H.G. giozan, Ger. giessen, Eng. gut), Lat. fūtis, Gk. χειν, Skr. juhoti, Av. zaotar, Pers. zōr, Toch. ku, Phryg. Zeuman, Arm. dzulel. Originally neutral in Gmc., the gender of “God” shifted to masculine after the coming of Christianity. Following Watkins, “(...)given the Greek facts, the Germanic form may have referred in the first instance to the spirit immanent in a burial mound”, therefore O.E. god was probably closer in sense to Lat. numen, a Latin term for the power of either a deity or a spirit that informs places and objects. A better word to translate Deus might have been Æsir, Gmc. ansuz (cf. O.N. Ás, O.E. Ós), a name for the principal gods of the pantheon of Norse mythology, but it was never used to refer to the Christian God. It survives in English mainly in the personal names beginning in Os- (cf. Oswin, Oswald, Osborn, etc.). The Germanic noun is believed to be derived from PIE (á)ńsus 'breath, god' related to Skr. asura and Av. ahura, with the same meaning; though in Sanskrit asura came to mean 'demon'. v.i. for more on meaning shift for substituted deities in IE languages. Ánsus is in turn related to ána, breathe.

[64] Prōbhasṓr comes from Lat. professor, agent noun from profitieri, from Lat. pro-, “forth”, and bháto (p.part. bhasós), “acknowledge, admit, confess”, as Lat. fateri (pp. fassus), zero-grade from PIE roots bhā, speak, and pro-, already seen. Other cognate MIE words translated from Late Latin common formations are prōbhasā, profess, kombhasā, confess.

[65] MIE Kolumnélis, Colonel, comes from It. colonnella “commander of a column of soldiers at the head of a regiment”, from compagna colonella, “little column company” from IE kolúmnā, Lat. columna, “projecting object, pillar, column”, from o-grade of PIE kel, be prominent, also kels, hill. Column comes in turn from o-grade kól(u)men, top, summit, from Lat. culmen, which gives verb kolmenā, culminate, raise, lift up, from L.Lat. culmināre. Other derivatives from the same root are kolobhṓn, summit, end, colophon, from Gk. κολοφών; zero-grade kĺnis, hill, as Gmc. khulniz (cf. O.N. hallr, O.E. hyll, M.Du. hill, L.Ger. hull), kĺmos, islet in a bay, meadow, as Gmc. khulmaz (cf. O.N. holmr, O.E. holm), extended form ekskéldo (compound of PIE eks- and extended form keld-), raise up, elevate, also “be eminent, excel”, from Lat. excellere. Compare also Goth. hallus, Lat. collis, celsus, Gk. κολονος, Skt. kutam, Lith. kalnelis, kelti.

[66] Indo-European reg meant originally probably straight line, hence “move or direct in a straight line”, rule, guide, lead. Compare common derivatives like verb reg, rule, lead straight, put right, as Lat. regere, Gk. ορεγειν, Av. razeyeiti; régtos/rḗgtos, right, straight, upright, righteous, wise, true, as Gmc. rekhtaz (cf. Goth. raihts, O.N. rettr, O.E. riht, O.H.G., O.Swed. reht, Ger. recht, Eng. right, straight), Lat. rectus, Gk. ὀρεκτός, O.Pers. rahst-, aršta-, Pers. rahst, Lith. teisus, O.Ir. recht, Welsh rhaith, Breton reiz; rēgs, ruler, leader, king, as in rēgiós, royal, from Celtic (cf. Gaul. -rix, O.Ir. ri, gen. rig, Gael. righ) into Gmc. rīkjaz, “rich, wealthy”, (cf. Goth. reiks, O.N. rikr, O.E. rice, O.H.G. rihhi, O.Fris. rike, Du. rijk, Ger. Reich, Eng. rich); rēgs, king, leader, as Lat. rēx, regis, which gives rḗgalis, royal, kingly, regal; rḗgēn, king, rajah, and verb rule, from Skr. rājā, rājan-, and rājati.; rḗgolā, straight piece of wood, rod, hence “rule”, and as verb “regulate”, from Lat. rēgula and L.Lat. rēgulāre; o-grade rogā, ask (<”stretch out the hand”), from Lat. rogāre; and lengthened rōgio, from Gmc. rōkjan - rakjan (cf. O.N. rækja, O.E. reccan, O.H.G. giruochan, Ger. geruhen, Eng. reck). Modern derivatives from Lat. rēctus have usually a lengthened vowel, as rḗgtom, rectum, rēgénts, regent, rḗgimēn, rḗgiōn, disrēgo, (compound with Lat. dis-, “apart”) to direct, disrēgtós, direct, komrēgo, to correct, komrēgtós, correct, rēgtṓr, rector, disrēgtṓr, director, etc.

[67] North: from PIE root ner- below, under, also on the left, hence, “with an eastward orientation”, north, as north is to the left when one faces the rising sun, giving Nŕtos as Gmc. nurthaz, O.N. norðr, O.E. norð; cf. Skt. narakah, Gk. enerthen, O.U. nertrak.

Originally PIE had (s)kew(e)ros, north, northwind, cf. W.Gmc. skūraz (cf. Goth. skura, O.N. skúr, O.S., O.H.G., O.E. scūr, Ger. Schauer, Eng. shower), Lat. caurus, Arm. c'urt/c'urd, Lith. šiaurus, šiaurys, šiaure, O.C.S. severu, Russ. sever.

I. Other IE derivatives for “left” are:

Ger. link, Du. linker are from O.H.G. slinc, M.Du. slink, related to O.E. slincan “crawl”, Swe. linka “limp”, slinka “dangle”.

I.2. PIE seujós, left, was the source for Skr. savya, Av. haoya, Toch. -/saiwai, OCS šujĭ, Russ. šuj, Welsh aswy.

I.3. A reconstructed IE sen is in the origin of Romance senesterós, left, on the left side, as Lat. sinister (opposite of dexter), meaning prop. “the slower or weaker hand” [Tucker], but Buck suggests it's a euphemism, connected with the root of Skt. saniyan “more useful, more advantageous”.

Spa. izquierda, Gl.-Pt. esquerda, Cat. esquerra are late borrowings from Basque ezkerra.

II. Indo-European derivatives for “right”:

II.1. The opposite of ner in PIE was probably deks, right, hence Deksinā/Deksiós south (facing east), giving Goth. taíhswa, O.H.G. zeso, Lat. dexter, Oscan destrst, Umb. destrame, Gk. δεξιός, Skr. dakṣina, Av. dašina, Kashmiri dạchūn, Toch. täk/, Lith. dešinė, OCS desnaya; desnŭ, Russ. десница, Gaul. Dexsiva, O.Ir. dech, Welsh deheu, Alb. djathtë. Common derivatives from Latin are deksterós, right, on the right side, hence skilful, dexter, as, as in dekstéritā, dexterity, or ambhideksteros, ambidextrous.

II.2. The usual derivative for right (in both senses, direction and “straight, just”) in modern Romance and Germanic languages is still made from oldest regtós/rēgtós (cf. Eng. right, Ger., Du. recht, Da.,Nor. rett, Swe. rätt, Spa. recto, Pt. reto), ultimately from PIE reg, although a usual Romance derivative comes from prefixed deregtós, as Lat. directus (cf. Fr. droit, Spa. derecho, It. diritto, Pt. direito, Rom. drept, Cat. dret), and a usual Germanic one is suffixed regtikós, as Gmc. rektikhaz (cf. Ger. richtig, Da. rigtig, Nor.,Swe. riktig); another word found in both, Lat. and Gmc. derivatives is komregtós, correct (as Ger.,Da. korrekt, Fr.,Du. correct, Spa. correcto, Pt. corretto).

II.3. Another usual word in Slavic languages comes from PIE verbal root bhew (older *bheuh₂), be, exist, grow, (see more on bhew), as zero-grade reduced suffixal form -bhw-, as in probhwós, “growing well or straightforward”, hence right, upright, correct, as Slavic prōvos (cf. O.Russ., O.C.S. правъ, Pol. prawy, Cz.,Slk. pravý, Sr.-Cr.,Slo. pràv), Lat. probus, O.Ind. prabhúṣ.

[68] South: related to base of Gmc. sunnon, from súnom, sun, (swén-/sún- are alternate roots for PIE swel) with the sense of “the region of the sun”, Ger. Süd, Süden are from a Du. pronunciation. O.Fr. sur, sud (Fr. sud), Sp. sur, sud- are loan words from Gmc., perhaps from O.N. suðr. Compare Gmc. sawel/sunnon (Goth. sauil, sunno, O.N. sól, sunna, O.Eng. sigel, sunne, O.H.G. sunna) Lat. sōl, Gk. ήλιος, Skr. sūras, Av. hvarə, Pers. -farnah-, Kamviri su, Toch. swāñce/swāñco, Alb. (h)yll, O. Pruss. saule, Lith. saulė, O.C.S. slunice, O.Russ. сълньце, Pol. słońce, Welsh haul, O.Ir. súil.

[69] The East is the direction in which the Sun breaks, from PIE aus, dawn; cf. Gmc. austo/austraz (O.N. austr, O.E. ēast, O.H.G. ōstra, Du. oost, Ger. Osten), Lat. aurōra, auster, Gk. αυριον (aurion), ηως (ēōs), Skr. uṣās, Av. ušastara, Lith. aušra, Ltv. ausma, Russ. утро, O.Ir. usah, fáir, Welsh gwawr. For Modern Indo-European we will use generally Áustos as Gmc. East, and Austrós as Gmc. Eastern (austraz) and for Lat. auster; as, Austrorḗgiom, Austria (cf. Gmc. austro+rikjan, Ger. Oesterreich), Austráliā (from Lat. Terra Australis, MIE Tersā Australis, Southern Land), etc.

[70] West: Pie root wes- is root for words meaning evening, west, as west(e)ros/wesperos/weskeros Gmc. westraz (cf. O.N. vestr, Du. west, Ger. West), Gk. έσπερος (^hesperos), Lat. vesper, O.C.S. večeru, Lith. vakaras, Welsh ucher, O.Ir. fescor, perhaps an enlarged form of PIE base we-, to go down (cf. Skt. avah), and thus lit. “direction in which the sun sets”.

[71] Lat. platea: courtyard, open space, broad street, comes from Gk. plateia (hodos), broad (way), fem. of pĺtus, broad, Gk. πλατυς, from PIE stem plat, spread out, broad, flat. Cf. Gmc. flataz; Lat. planta; Skt. prathati, Gk. pelanos, Hitt. palhi; Lith. platus, plonas; O.Ir. lethan. Related to plāk, to be flat; cf. Gmc. flakaz (Eng. flake), Lat. plācāre, Gk. plax. Both extended forms of PIE base pĺā [‘pl̥-a:] (from pel), flat, spread; cf. Gmc. felthuz (Eng. field), Lat. plānus, Gk. plassein, Sla. polje, etc.

IE plat is an extension of PIE root pel, flat, and spread. Compare péltus, flat land, field, as Gmc. felthuz (cf. O.Fris. feld, O.E. feld, M.H.G. velt, Ger. Feld, Eng. field, even Finnish pelto, “field”, from Proto-Germanic), plrus, floor, ground, as Gmc. flōruz (cf. O.N., O.E. flor, M.H.G. vluor, M.Du. vloer, Ger. Flur, Eng. floor) or Welsh llawr, plānós, flat, level, even, plain, clear, from Lat. plānus; pĺmā, palm, as Lat. palma; plānḗtā, “wandering”, planet, as Gk. πλανήτης, from plānā, wander (<”spread out”), from Gk. πλανασθαι; also zero-grade pladhio, mold, “spread out”, as Gk. πλασσειν (plassein, from older Proto-Greek pladh-je), hence loan words plastikós, plásmā, -plasia, plastós, etc. In Slavic there are o-grade polís, open, and pólā, broad flat land, field.

The old territory of the tribe of Polans (Polanie), MIE Polános, had a name which became that of the Polish state in the 10^th century. MIE Póliskā, Pol. Polska (Eng. Poland, “land of the Poles”), expressed both meanings, and comes from IE adjectival suffix -isko-, as in poliskós, polish, Póliskos, Pole, f. Polisk dńghū or n. Póliskom, polish language. The name of the tribe comes from a PIE source akin to Polish pole, “field, open field”), from IE pólā.

[72] PIE wer, speak, is the source of zero-grade wŕdhom, word, as Gmc. wurdan (cf. Goth. waurd, O.N. orð, O.S., O.E., O.Fris. word, Du. woord, O.H.G. wort), full-grade wérdhom, verb, from Lat. verbum (originally “word”), as in adwérdhiom, adverb, and prōwérdhiom, proverb, prewérdhiom, preverb; wério, say, speak, as Gk. ειρειν, from which werionía/weironía, irony, as Gk. εἰρωνεία; wrētṓr, public speaker, rhetor, as Gk. ῥήτωρ, from which wrētṓrikā, rhetoric, as Gk. ῥητορική, or wrḗmn, word, rheme, as Gk. ῥημα; compare also, with the sense of speak, command, agree, call, summon, lie, etc., Umb. uerfalem, Skr. vrata-, Av. urvāta, Old Prussian wīrds, Lith. vardas, Ltv. vārds, OCS vračĭ, Russ. врать, O.Ir. fordat, Hitt. ueriga.

[73] Indo-European ékwos, ékwā, and kŕsos (maybe kŕsos), have also another synonym in Celtic and Germanic – maybe all borrowings from Gaulish -, márkom, márkiā, horse, as Gaul. markan, O.Ir. marc, Welsh march, Bret. marh, and Gmc. markhjon, cf. O.N. marr, O.E. mearh, also fem. O.S. meriha, O.N. merr, O.E. mere/myre, O.Fris. merrie, O.H.G. marah, Eng. mare, Ger. Mähre.

[74] PIE root bak, used for “staff”, is the source for bákolom, rod, walking stick, as Lat. baculum, and diminutive bakénelom, staff, bacillum, and possibly nbēkenelós, imbecile, weak, feeble. Also, for báktrom, rod, from Gk. βάκτρον, and its diminutive baktḗriom, bacterium, little rod, for Gk. βακτηριον. French loan words débâcle (MIE debákolā) and baguette (from It. bacchetta, from bacchio, in turn from Lat. baculum) are also modern derivatives. Compare also Lith. bakstelėti, Ltv. bakstīt, O.Ir. bacc, Welsh bach.

[75] For Indo-European bhel, light, bright, also gleam, compare Gmc. blaik- (cf. Goth. bala, O.N. bāl, blár, bleikr, O.E. blæcern, blǣcan, blǣwen, O.H.G. blecken, bleich, blāo), Lat. flagrāre; flāvus, Oscan Flagiúi; Flaviies, Gk. φλεγειν; φαλος, Skr. bharga; bhālam, Phryg. falos, Toch. pälk/pälk, Illyr. balta, Thrac. balios, Arm. bal, O.Pruss. ballo, Lith. blagnytis, baltas, Ltv. balts, Russ. belyj, Polish biały, Gaul. Belenos, Ir. beltene, blár, Welsh bal, blawr, Alb. ballë. Thus e.g. Modern Indo-European Bhaltikós, Baltic, Bhelārús, Belarus, “White Ruthenia”, and possibly Bhélgiā/Bhélgikā, from the Celtic tribe of the Bhélgās, Belgae for the Romans.

[76] IE téutā means originally people, tribe; as Gmc. theudo (cf. Goth. þiuda, O.N. þjóð, O.E. þeoð, O.H.G. diutisc, M.Du. duitsch, Eng. Dutch, Ger. Deutsch, Ice. Þýska , L.Lat. theodice, It. tedesco), Osc. touto, Umb. totam, Illyr. teuta, O.Prus. tauto, Lith. tauta, Ltv. tauta, Gaul. teuto, O.Ir. tath; Hitt. tuzzi. Lyc. tuta. Today the Germanic adjective equivalent to MIE Teutiskós is mainly used to describe Germans (also in a wider sense of German-speaking people) and Germany (cf. Dan., Nor, Swe. tysk, Du. Duits, Ice. Þýskur, Lat. theodisco, It. tedesco, Rum. tudestg, even Chinese dǔ, Japanese doitsu, Korean dogeo, or Vietnamese Ðức), hence Téutiskom, German language, Teutiskléndhom, Germany, from O.H.G. Diutisklant, Ger. Deutschland.

Finnish and Estonian derivatives are from loan word saksa, MIE Sáksōn (maybe PIE Sóksōn, v.i.), from L.Lat. Saxō, Saxonēs, in turn from West Germanic tribal name Saxon, traditionally regarded as from sóksom, Germanic sakhsam, “knife”, (cf. O.E. Seaxe, O.H.G. Sahsun, Ger. Sachse), therefore ‘Saxon’ could have meant lit. “warrior with knifes”, “swordsmen”, related to sókā, cutting tool, saw, as Gmc. sagō (cf. O.E. seax, secg, O.N. sõg, Norw. sag, Dan. sav, M.Du. saghe, Du. zaag, O.H.G. saga, Ger. Säge), from PIE root sek, cut. Athematic sekā, as Lat. secāre, gives common derivatives like séktiōn, section, sekméntom, segment, enséktom, insect, sektṓr, sector, dissekā, dissect, etc. Other derivatives include skend, peel of, flay, and skends, skin, as Gmc. skinths (cf. O.N. skinn, O.H.G. scinten, Ger. schinden, Flem. schinde); sáksom, stone (maybe from “broken-off piece”), from Lat. saxum; sékitā, sickle, scythe, as Gmc. segithō (cf. O.S. segasna, O.E. sigði, M.L.G. segede, M.Du. sichte, O.H.G. segensa, Ger. Sense). Compare also Lat. sасēnа, Slavic sěkǫ, sěkti (cf. O.C.S. сѣкѫ, сѣшти, O.Rus. сѣку, сѣчи, Pol. siес, siecę, Srb.-Cro. sijecem, sijehi), O.Lith. į̀sekti, išsekt, O.Ir. doescim, Ir. ésgid, Bret. scant, Alb. shat.

[77] Adjective entergnationalis comes from enter+gnationalis, and is a usual modern loan word (from Lat. terms inter+natio) in Romance and Germanic languages, as well as in Celtic and South Slavic. In some Slavic modern languages, even though the same Latin borrowings exist (cf. Russ. нация, интернационал-, Pol. nacja, internacjonal-, etc.), the usual compound is made by medhjonorodhós (cf. Russ. между+народный, Pol. między+narodowy, etc.) from PIE médhjos, middle, and nórodhs, nation.

A. Indo-European énter, between, among, gave Lat. inter, and is found in common loan words enteriós, interior, enternós, intern, and enternalis, internal. Also, compare other similar derivatives like ént(e)ro, as in éntrō, inward, within, from Lat. intrō, as in entroduko, introduce, entrospeko, “look inside”, introspect (see spek); or éntrā, inside, within, from Lat. intrā, as in verb entrā, enter, or suffix entra-, intra-; also found in énterim, (with ablative suffix -im), entrīnseqós (from énterim and séqos, alongside), and entamós, innermost, intime, and its verb entamā, intimate, with -mo- being a superlative suffix. Similar IE words include entós, within, from Gk. εντός, énterom, intestine, enteron, from Gk. ἔντερον, and Skr. antara-.

Other common derivatives include enerós, inner, further in, from Gmc. comparative innera; Gk. and Lat. endós, inner, within, which gives endostruós, diligent, industrious, from Lat. industrius (O.Lat. indostruus), thus endóstruā, industry, and Lat. loan word endogénts, indigent. Extended ens, into, as Gk. εις (eis), which gives epensódiom, episode, from IE epi and loan word ensódios, entering, from Gk. εισόδιος (eisodios). Further suffixed ensō, within, gives ensoterikós, esoteric, and ensotropikós, esotropic, from Greek ἐσω.

B. Common IE words for people, race, men, nation, apart from téuta, génos, man, wīros:

B.1. For Balto-Slavic rodhs, kind, sort, genre, family, clan, and nórodhs, people, nation – look at the parallelism with génos and gnátiōn –, compare Lith. rasmė, Ltv. rads, rasma, rаžа (from older radi̯ā), O.C.S.,O.Russ. родъ, Russ. род, народ, Pol. ród, naród, etc. It is deemed to be o-grade form of PIE redh, rise out, extend forth, an Indo-European base akin to PIE verb wrōdh, grow up, and also high, steep; compare Skr. várdhati, Av. varait, Alb. rit, and (doubtfully) Arm. ordi, “son”, Lat. arbor, “tree” (MIE árbōr), Hitt. hardu. A common derivative is zero-grade suffixed wrdhuós, straight, with MIE comp. elem. wrdho-, as Gk. ὀρθο-.

A common Indo-European preposition is reconstructed as PIE ano, on, as Lat. in- (in some cases, and also an-), Gk. ἀνά, ἄνω, Av. ana. It gave ána, on, up, upon, as Gmc. ana, anō (cf. Goth. ana, O.N. á, O.E. an, on, a, O.H.G. ana, Du. aan), and variant Balto-Slavic form no, as Slavic na (cf. O.C.S. на, Ukr.,Bul.,Russ. на, Cz.,Pol. na), O.Pruss. nо, nа, Lith. nuõ, Ltv. nùо.

B.3. A common Germanic word is pĺgom, people, men, from Gmc. folkam (cf. O.N. folk, O.E. folc, O.Fris. folk, M.Du. volc, Ger. Volk), which is usually compared with Lith. pulkas, O.C.S. pluku, both believed to have been borrowed from Proto-Germanic. It is related to plḗdhūs, people, multitude, as Lat. plēbs, plēbēs, and plédhwos, multitude, as Gk. πλήθος, all from PIE root pel, fill, be full. Other derivatives include plnós, full, as Gmc. fulnaz, fullaz (cf. Goth. fulls, O.N. fullr, O.E. full, O.Fris. ful, O.H.G. fol, Ger. voll); pĺio, fill, as Gmc. fulljan (cf. O.S. fulljan, O.N. fylla, O.E. fyllan, O.Fris. fella, Du. vullen, Ger. füllen ); lengthened plē, fill, and plēnós, filled, full; plaús/plūs, plus, from Lat. plūs (earlier O.Lat. plous); o-grade polús, much, many, from Gk. πολύς; verb plēdhwo, be full, as in plḗdhwōrā, plethora, from Gk. πληθώρα; adjective plērós, full, as Gk πληρης; plēiōn, more, as Gk. πλεῖον; or pleistos (superlative), most, as Gk. πλεῖστος.

B.4. Latin populus, “people”, is usually seen as a borrowing from Etruscan. It is reconstructed as MIE pópolos, therefore maybe a secondary root derived from o-grade of pel-, full, already seen in Germanic folk and Latin plebs. Known derivatives are popolaris, public, popular, and poplikós, public, from O.Lat. poplicus, which was influenced by Lat. pubes, “adult”, into Lat. publicus, and thus also MIE publikós, which is a common Latin loan word today.

B.5. Indo-European lúdhis, people, is found in Gmc. liudi (cf. Goth. liudan, O.N. ljlēod, O.H.G. liut, Ger. Leute, also found in Ger. Lette, Eng. Lett, mediaeval noun for Latvian), Osc. Lúvfreís, O. Pruss. ludis, Lith. liaudis, Ltv. ļaudis, OCS ljudĭje, Russ. люди, Pol. lud, O.Ir. luss, Welsh llysiau, Alb. lind. It comes from PIE verb léudh, mount up, grow – compare the parallelism with genos/gnation, wrōdh/redh –, as Skr. rodhati, Av. raodha. Also, leudherós, free, maybe originally “belonging to the people, public” (although the semantic development is obscure), as in Lat. līber, Gk. ελευθερος, and common derivatives like leudheralis, liberal, leudherā, liberate, léudhertā, liberty, deleudherā, deliver, etc.

B.6. Another PIE common root is kei, lie, bed, couch, beloved, dear; as kéiwom, members of a household, hind, O.E. hīwan; kéiwidhā, measure of land, household, hide, O.E. hīgid, hīd; kéiwis, citizen, member of a household, Lat. cīuis, as in keiwikós, civic, keiwilis, civil, or kéiwitā, city; kéilijos, companion, as Eng. ceilidh, from O.Ir. céle; koin, cradle, from Lat. cunae; koimā, put to sleep, and also village, as in Gk. κοιμη-, κώμη, and common borrowing koimātḗriom, cemetery, from Lat. coemeterium, itself from Gk. κοιμητήριον; zero-grade kiwós, auspicious, dear, as in Skr. śiva-; kéims, person, servant, and kéimiā, household, domestic servants, family, as O.C.S. сѣмь, сѣмиıа, O.Russ. сѣмиıа, сѣмьца, Ukr. сiм᾽я, Bulg. семейство, O.Pruss. seimīns, Lith. šeimà, šeimýna, Ltv. sàimе. Also, compare Lith. kaimas, “village”, maybe a borrowing from an early Centum dialect.

It gives secondary root (t)kei (from ad+kei), settle, dwell, be home, as in (t)kóimos, home, residence, village, from Gmc. khaimaz (cf. Goth. haims, O.N. heimr, O.E. hām, O.Fris. hem, M.Du hame, O.H.G. heim), which gives koimghórdhos, shelter, hangar, from Gmc. haimgardaz into O.Fr. hangard; ktiso, found, settle, metathesized form from Gk. κτίζειν; also probably Italic suffixed sítus (from older metathesized *ktítus), location, situs, and situā, situate, locate; compare also Skr. kṣeti, Av. šaēiti, Arm. šēm.

B.7. Common PIE wel, crowd, throng, is reconstructed for MIE wólgos, common people, multitude, crowd, as in Lat. uulgus, and adjective wolgaris, “of or pertaining to the common people, common, everyday, ordinary”, then extended with time as pejorative vulgar; cf. Skr. vargah, “division, group”, and also Gk. ειλειν, M.Bret. gwal'ch, Welsh gwala.

B.8. Another MIE common loan translation is swédhnos, band of people living together, nation, people, from Gk. ἔθνος (ethnos), lit. “people of one's own kind” from PIE reflexive s(w)e-. Compare also derivatives swedhnikós, ethnic, swédhniā, ethnia, race.

B.9. Latin persónā, person, (from Etruscan phersu, “mask”, and this from Gk. πρόσωπον), and famíliā, family, household, from fámolos, servant, (compare parallelism with Balto-Slavic pair keims/kéimiā), both of uncertain etymology, are left as loan words in Modern Indo-European.

[78] MIE rḗgios, king, rḗgiā, queen, are Germanic loans from Celtic, in turn derived from PIE lengthened base rēg, a common Indo-European word for the tribal king. The correct Latin loan-translations are rēgs, king, rēgínā, queen, while those from Sanskrit are rḗgēn, raja, rḗgenis, rani; Indo-European rḗgiom is the Celtic source for Germanic words meaning realm, kingdom, empire, as Gmc. rikjam (cf. O.N. rīki, O.E. rīce, O.H.G. rihhi, Ger. Reich).

[79] For wros, man, freeman, as in Eng. were-wolf. Compare Gmc. weraz (cf. Goth. wair, O.E. wer, O.N. verr), Lat. uir, Umb. viru, Skr vīra, Av. vīra, Toch. wir, O.Pruss. wirs, Lith. vyras, Ltv. vīrs, Gaul. uiro-, O.Ir. fer, Wel. gwr. Usual derivatives are wīrīlis, virile, wīrtuts, manliness, excellence, goodness, virtue, wīrtuosós, virtuous, skilled, of great worth, virtuoso, dekmwroi, decemvir (commission of ten men), or kū́riā, curia, court (from kowriā, “men together”). It is found in compound wirwĺqos (from shortened wíros), werewolf, as Gmc. wer-wulfaz (cf. O.E. werewulf, O.H.G. werwolf, M.Du. weerwolf, Swed. varulf, and also Frank. wer-wulf into O.Fr. garoul, then leu-garoul, from Lat. lupus, itself from wĺqos, hence Eng. loup-garou, lit. “wolf-werewolf”), and wíralts, world, v.i.

Common IE words for man, male, apart from mánwos:

I. The common Romance word comes from Lat. homō (cf. Fr. homme, It. uomo, Spa. hombre, Pt. homem, Cat. home), in turn from IE (dh)ghómōn, man, “earthling”, human being, (cf. Arm. տղամարդ, dghamard, “man”), which gives derivatives ghomonidós, hominid, dim. ghomonkolós, homuncule, ghomokdiom, homicide, ghomontiōn, homage (from Oc. homenatge), closely related with (dh)ghōmnos, human, kind, humane, both related with MIE (dh)ghómos, earth, ground, soil, as Lat. humus, (cf. Osc. huntruis, Umb. hondomu) which gives common derivatives as ghomilis, low, lower, humble, and ghomilitā, humility, ghomiliā, humiliate, eksghomā, exhume, enghomā, inhume, transghomā, move livestock seasonally, as in Eng. transhumance. They all come from PIE root dhghem, earth, (as in Pers. zamīn, Kashmiri zamin), which gives common IE dhghōm [g^ho:m] (gen. dhghmós [g^hm̥-‘os]), earth, and other derivatives as (dh)ghḿon [‘g^hm̥-on], man, “earthling”, in Gmc. gumōn (cf. Goth. guma, O.N. gumi, O.E. guma, O.H.G. gomo, found in Eng. bridegroom, Ger. Bräutigam; Mod. Eng. groom was altered 16^th c. by folk etymology after groom “boy, lad”, itself from a source akin to verb grow); metathesized as ghdhōm, Gk. χθών, as in autóghdhōm, autochthon; zero-grade (dh)ghm [g^hm̥], on the ground, as Gk. χαμαι, as in ghḿleōn, chameleon (“ground-lion”, lizard, léōn is from Semitic origin adopted in Greek and Latin), ghmmḗlōn, chamomile (“ground-melon”, from Lat. loan word mḗlōn, melon, short for Gk. mēlo-peppōn, “apple-gourd”); the common Balto-Slavic words come from IE (dh)ghémiā, land, earth, as O.Pruss. same, Lith. žemė, Ltv. zeme, O.Russ. zemi, Pol. ziemia, Cz. země, also found as zemlja, in O.C.S., Russ., Srb.-Cro., etc. Other common IE derivatives are Skr. kṣa, Phryg. zemelo; zamelon, Thrac. semele; semela, Toch. tkam/keṃ, O.Ir. du, Welsh dyn, Alb. dhè, Osset. zæxx; Hitt. tekan, Luw. dakam-,

I.1. Common words for earth, land, apart from dhghōm, polā, and léndhom:

Adjective altós comes from PIE root al, grow, nourish, found in almós, nurturing, nourishing (as in alm mātḗr, “nourishing mother”, university); Latin verb alo, nourish, from which pres.part. alomnós, being nourished (from which alómnos, fosterling, step-child, alumnus, student), alibhilis, alible, aliméntom, aliment, as well as o-grade suffixed compound adolesko, grow up, as in adoleskénts, adolescent, or part. adoltós, grown up, adult; suffixed causative compound aboleio, retard the growth of, abolish; compound prṓlēs (from pro-alēs), offspring; and extended aldho, get well, as in Gk. ἀλθαία.

The proper IE word for old is senós, cf. Goth. sineigs, ON sina, Lat. senex, Gk. henos, Skr. sana, Av. hana, Arm. hin, Lith. senas, Ltv. sens, Gaul. Senognatus, O.Ir. sen, Welsh hyn. It is found (from Lat. senex, MIE séneks, an elder), in sentos, senate, senilis, senile, seniós, older, as in Latin loan word sénior, senior, señor, signore, sir, sire, senektúts, senectitude, etc.

I.1.b. Romance terra, “earth, Earth”, comes from PIE térsā, “dry land”, also as loan word MIE térrā, in derivatives like tersḗnos, terrain, suptersanios, subterranean, tersaqios (from térsa+áqa), terraqueous, etc. PIE ters, dry, which gives tŕstus, dryness, thirst, Gmc. thurstuz (cf. O.E. thurst), trskós, dried, as Gmc. thurskaz (cf. O.N. thorskr, O.E. cusk); torseio, dry, parch, burn, as Lat. torrēre, also as loan word in torsénts, torrent, or torsidós, torrid, p.part. torstós, burnt, into torstā, toast, and noun torstátā; zero-grade tŕsos, tarsos, frame of wickerwork (originally for drying cheese), hence a flat surface, sole of the foot, ankle, Gk. ταρσός.

I.1.d. Latin mundus, “universe, world”, lit. “clean, elegant” is from unknown origin, hence loan wod MIE móndos, which gives mondānós, mundane, “belonging to the world”, (as distinct from the Church), used as a translation of Gk. κόσμος (MIE loan word kósmos) in its Pythagorean sense of “the physical universe” (the original sense of the Gk. word was “order, orderly arrangement”). L. mundus also was used of a woman's “ornaments, dress”, and is related to the adj. mondós, clean, elegant.

I.1.e. Greek gē, earth, (m.γῆ, f. γαῖα) is also from unknown origin, and is left so in derivatives, as geō-.

I.1.f. English “ground” comes from Gmc. grunduz (cf. O.N. grunn, O.E. grund, O.Fris. grund, Du. grond, Ger. Grund), of unknown origin, MIE grúndus, foundation, ground, surface of the earth, originally deep place, bottom, bottom of the sea.

I.2. English “bride” comes from Gmc. bruthiz (cf. Goth. bruþs, O.E. bryd, O.Fris. breid, Du. bruid, O.H.G. brut, and from this into Mid.Lat. bruta, and from this into O.Fr. bruy), possibly originally daughter-in-law, later also “woman being married”, bride. In ancient IE custom, the married woman went to live with her husband's family, so the only "newly-wed female" in such a household would be the daughter-in-law. Reconstructed as MIE bhrútis, it is probably derived as zero-grade from PIE verb bhreu, boil, bubble, effervesce, burn, with derivatives referring to cooking and brewing, as bhrútom, broth, from Gmc. brutham (cf. O.E. broþ, V.Lat. brodum). Other derivatives include extended bhréuwo, brew, as Gmc. breuwan (cf. O.N. brugga, O.E. breowan, O.Fris. briuwa, M.Du. brouwen); bhréutom, cooked food, leavened bread, as Gmc. brautham (O.E. brēad, O.N. brot, Dan. brød, Ger. Brot); variant lengthened bhrēto, warm, giving o-grade denominative bhrṓtā, “a warming”, hatching, rearing of young, brood, as Gmc. brōdō, and verb bhrōtio, rear young, breed, as Gmc. brōdjan, roast flesh, or bhrḗtōn, roast flesh, as Gmc. brēdōn (cf. O.H.G. brāto, O.Fr. braon); bhrésā, burning coal, ember, hence (from O.Fr. brese) braise, breeze, braze; bhérmōn, yeast, as Gmc. bermōn (cf. O.E. beorma, M.L.G. barm, Du. berm), or further suffixed bherméntom, yeast, ferment, as Lat. fermentum; extendd bherwē, be boiling or fermenting, as Lat. feruēre, as in bherwénts, fervent, bherwṓr, fervor, eghbherwesko, effervesce, etc.; and, as very archaic words for spring, compare bhrúnōn, as Gmc. brunnon, and suffixed bhrḗwr, as Gk. φρέαρ, as in bhrewtikós, phreatic. From an original PIE root bher- are also Skr. bhurati, Gk. phurdēn-migdēn, Gaul. Voberā, O.Ir. bréo, M.Ir. berbaim, Welsh beru, Alb. burmë, and also probably lengthened bhrē, smell, breathe, from which bhrḗtos, odor, exhalation, breath, as Gmc. brēthaz (cf. ON bráðr, O.E. brǣþ, O.H.G. brādam, Ger. Brodem).

II. A form almost restricted to West Germanic is koirós, gray, hence “gray-haired”, venerable, old, as Gmc. khairaz (cf. O.E. hār, O.H.G. her, comp. herro, “noble”, as Ger. Herr, Du. heer, then MIE kóireros), from PIE koi, shine.

III. A Greek form comes from IE *h₂ner, man, with basic sense of vigorous, vital, strong, as in anḗr, Gk. ἀνήρ (anēr), and zero-grade in compounds as anr-, andro-, -anros, -androus, “having men”, -anriā, -andry, etc.

[80] Dwenós, good (as Lat. bonus) comes from PIE deu, do, perform, show favor, possibly but unlikely related to dunamikós, dynamic (from dúnamis, Gk. δύναμις, force). The Germanic word for good is gōdaz (cf. O.Eng. gōd, O.N. gōðr, Du. goed, O.Ger. guot, gigat, Goth. gōþs, gadilings, Ger. gut, gätlich), from Modern Indo-European ghōdhós, which comes from PIE root ghedh, to unite, join, fit. Compare Skr. gadhjas, Lith. guõdas, Ltv. gads, gùods, Alb. ngeh, ngae, O.C.S. godŭ, Russ годъ, Polish gody, Toch. kātk/kātk.

[81] Áutom, auto, is a diminutive of automówibhili/automṓbhili, automobile, from Gk αὐτο- self, one’s own, (in turn from αὐτος, self, same, from IE au) and PIE méw, move, ‘latinized’ as mowē (from Lat. mouēre), which gives also PIE zero-grade noun motós, moved, movement, (cf. Lat. motus; compare also Gk. ameusasthai, amuno, Skt. -muta, mivati, Lith. mauti). The words kárros and kárrom, from Celtic and Latin (in turn from PIE kers, run) cognate with Modern English car, mean in Modern Indo-European charriot, cart, wagon, originally “wheeled vehicle”.

For PIE kers, compare zero-grade krso, run, as Lat. currere, giving modern derivatives as kŕsos, course, krsénts, current, krsṓr, cursor, komkŕso, concur, komkŕsos, concurso, diskŕso, think up, diskŕsos, discourse, ekskŕsion, excursion, enkŕso, incur, enterkŕso, mingle with, enterkŕsos, a running between, interposition, opkŕso, occur, rekŕso, recur, etc.; kŕsos, or as loan word kárros, two-wheeled wagon, giving derivatives as karráriā, career, karrikā, carry, charge, diskarrikā, discharge, karikaturā (from Italian), etc., and krpéntom, two-wheeled carriage, from which krpentārios, carpenter. See also a possible Germanic cognate kŕsos, horse.

[82] PIE per is the root for particles and words meaning “forward, through”, and a wide range of extended senses such as “in front of, before, early, first, chief, toward, against, near, at, around”. Derivatives include péri, Gmc. fer-, far- (cf. Eng. for-, Du.,Ger. ver-), which is used as intensive prefix denoting destruction, reversal or completion; its superlative is perero, farther away, far, as Gmc. fer(e)ra (cf. O.N. fjarre, O.E. feorr, Du. ver, Ger. fern); per, per-, through, for, as Lat. per; péri, around, near, beyond, over, as Gk. περι, Skr. pari, O.Iran. pari; per-, around, again, as Slavic per-. Also, zero-grade pr, before, in, Gmc. fur, as Eng. for; prt, forward, as Gmc. furth, Eng. forth; pŕtero, farther away, Gmc. furthera, Eng. further; pr, por, forth, forward, as Lat. por-; pŕsōd, forward, parget, as Lat. porrō; prmós, Gmc. fruma/furma, Eng. former; prmistós, foremost, Gmc. frumista/furmista; pristós, first, foremost, Gmc. furista; prówaria, “forward part of a ship”, prow, from Gk. πρώρα; prowatós, first, foremost, as Gk. πρωτο; pŕa, before, fore, as Gmc. fura; pára, beside, alongside of, beyond, as Gk. παρα; prō, forward, away from, as Gmc. fra; prómo, from, as Gmc. fram; prṓwā, lady, Gmc. frōwō, from prówom, lord, Gmc. frawan; prōwós, true, as Slavic pravu; pro, before, for, instead, as Lat. pro; prónos, leaning, forward, as Lat. pronus; proqe, near, as Lat. prope; proqinqós, near, as Lat. propinquus; proq(i)samós, nearest, as Lat. proximus, as in verb adproqsamā, approximate; probhwós (bhw-o-, grow, from PIE root bhew), growing well or straightforward, upright, good, virtuous, as Lat. probus; pro, before, forth, in front, forward, as Gk. προ, Skr. pra-; proterós, before, former, as Gk. προτερος; (p)ro, intensive prefix as Celtic ro; extended forms prai, prei, before, as Lat. prae; préijos, former, higher, superior, as Lat. prior; preiwós, single, alone (“standing in front”, “isolated from others”), as Lat. priuus, as in preiwatós, private; propreiwós, one’s own, particular, as Lat. proprius; prei(s)mós, first, foremost, as Lat. prīmus; preismkáps/prīmkáps (from preismós+kaps), leader, chief, emperor, as Lat. prīnceps; preistanós, former, earlier, as Lat. prīstinus; préscus, old, old man, (cu-, “going”, from verb cā, go), as in Gk. πρέσβυς; próti/pros, against, toward, near, at, as Gk. προς. Other derivatives include Skr. prā, Lith. per, pro, Hitt. per.

For IE cā, go, come, and cem, come, compare Gmc. kuman (cf. Goth. quiman, O.E. cuman, Ger. kommen, Eng. come), as in bhicem, become, as Gmc. bikuman (from ámbhi); cémōn, “he who comes”, guest, in welcémōn, welcome, “a desirable guest” (from PIE wel, wish, will), as Gmc. wilkumōn; suffixed cemio, come, as Lat. uenīre, in adcemio, advene, adcemtos, advent, adcemtósā/adcemtórā, adventure, adcemtā, avenue, kirkomcemio, circumvent, komtracemio, contravene, komcemio, convene, komcémtos, convent, komcémtiōn, convention, ekcemtos, event, ekcemtualis, eventual, entercemio, intervene, encemio, invent, encemtóriom, inventory, precemio, prevent, procemio, come from, recemio, return, supcemio, souvenir, supcémtiōn, subventio, supercemio, supervene; suffixed cmio, as Gk. bainein, go, walk, step, with cátis/cásis, basis, a stepping, tread, base, and -catos, going, and -catā, agential suffix, “one that goes or treads, one that is based”, as in akrocátā, acrobat, as Gk. ἀκροβάτης, anacásis, diacásis, acásiā, diacmio, go through, in diacatā, diabetes; also cmā, step, seat, raised platform, as Gk. bēma.

From PIE wel, wish, will, are derivatives wel(l)io, desire, as Gmc. wil(l)jan (cf. Goth. wiljan, O.S. willian, O.N. vilja, O.E. wyllan, O.Fris. willa, O.H.G. wellan, Du. willen, Ger. wollen), also wéliā, desire, will, power, as Gmc. wiljōn, and wélā, well-being, riches, wealth, as Gmc. welōn; o-grade wolio, choose, as Gmc. waljan (cf. Goth. waljan, Ger. wählen), also wolós, good, well, as Frank. walaz, into wolā, take it easy, rejoice, as Frank.Lat. ualāre (then O.Fr. galer), as in wolnts, gallant, also from Frankish walopā, gallop, wallop, from O.Fr. galoper (O.N.Fr. waloper); from basic form wel(l)o, wish, desire, as Lat. uelle (present stem o-grade Lat. uol-), as in welleitā, velleity, wolition, volition, wolontariós, voluntary, dweniwolénts, benevolent, maliwolentia, malevolence; probably extended adjetive welpís, pleasing, in adverb wólup, with pleasure, into wolúptā, pleasure, as Lat. uoluptās, into wuluptuosos, voluptuous. Compare also Gk. elpis, Skt. vṛnoti, varyaḥ, varanam, Av. verenav-, Lith. velyti, O.C.S. voljo, voliti “will”, and veljo, veleti, “ command”, Welsh gwell.

[83] Indo-European épi, ópi, near, at, against, is the base for op (and reduced prefixal op-), “before, to, against”, as Lat. ob, ob-, also “on”, as O.C.S. ob; epi, “on, over, at”, as Gk. ἐπι, or opisten, “behind, at the back”, as Gk. opisthen; zero-grade pi, on, in Gk. piezein (see sed); and ops, extra on the side, with, as ópsom, condiment, cooked food, as in opsóniom, supply, as Gk. ὀψώνιον.

[84] Proto-Indo-European root ánt, front, forehead, had a common derivative ánti, against, and also in front of, before, end; ántia, end, boundary, as Gmc. andja (cf. Goth. and, O.N. endir, O.E. ende, O.Fris. enda, O.H.G. endi); Lat. ante, as in antiénts, ancient, antiriós, anterior, etc.; enántios, opposite, as Gk. εναντιος; antiqós, “appearing before, having prior aspect” (in compound with PIE oq-, see), former, antique, as Lat. antiquus; ńti, away from, until, unto, as Gmc. und; ántos, end, as Skr. antah. Other IE derivatives attested are Osc. ant, Toch. ānt/ānte, Lith. ant, O.Ir. étan, Hitt. ḫanta, Luw. hantili, Lyc. xñtawata.

The former particle builds a common compound, probably a plural (see plural declension), ánt-bhi, “from both sides”, giving PIE ámbhi (earlier *h₂n̥-b^hi), around, as Gk. ἀμφί, both, both sides, which gives ambhícios, amphibious, as Gk. ἀμφίβιος, or ambhithéatrom, amphitheatre, from Lat. amphitheatrum, itself from Gk. ἀμφιθέατρον; MIE ambhi, ambh, “around, about”, as in Latin, gives ambholā, go about, walk, ambulate, ambholántiā, ambulance, praiambholós, walking in front, praiámbholom, preamble; also, Gmc. umbi (cf. O.N. um, umb, O.E. bi, be, ymbe, Du. bij, O.H.G. umbi, bi, Ger. um,bei, Eng. by,but); from Celtic, ambhágtos, embassador, sevant, vassal, and ambhágtiā, embassy, from Lat. ambactos, from Celt. amb(i)actos. Also, in other IE languages, Skr. abhitaḥ, Av. aiwito, aibi, O.Pers. abiy, Toch. āmpi, Lith. abu, O.C.S. oba, Gaul. ambi-, O.Ir. imb-, Ir. um, Welsh am.

[85] PIE ad, to, near, at, toward, by, gives Gmc. at (cf. O.N., Goth. at, O.E. æt, O.Fris. et, O.H.G. az), Lat. ad, Osc. adpúd, Umb. ař, Skr. adhi, Phryg. addaket, Gaul. ad, O.Ir. ad, Welsh add, and Ancient Macedonian addai.

[86] Compare for PIE root al, beyond, as in olse-, olsos, as O.Lat. ollus, ols, which gives olterios, ulterior, oltimā, ultimate, etc. Also, suffixed forms with adj. comp. -tero-, álteros, and alternative ánteros, “the other of two”, second, other, cf. Lat. alter, adulterāre, Gmc. antharaz (Goth. anþar, O.S. athar, O.N. annarr, O.E. oþer, Ger. ander), Skr. antarah, Lith. antras, see dwo. Other derivatives are aliós, alnós, else, otherwise, “other of more than two”, as well as alienós, alenós, foreign, alien; compare Gmc. aljaz (Goth. aljis, O.N. allr, elligar, O.E. elles, el-lende, O.H.G. all, eli-lenti), Lat. alius, aliēnus, Osc. allo, Gk. άλλος, Skr. anja, áraṇa-, Av. anja-, airjō, O.Pers. ārija, Toch. alje, ālak/allek, Phryg. alu-, Arm. ail, Gaul. alla, O.Ir. oll,aile, Welsh allan,ail; Lyd. aλaś, probably Hitt. uli-, aluś.

Compare also MIE terms alienós, foreign, but loan words Arián (from PIE Alién), Iran, and Ariános (from PIE Aliénos), Iranian, ‘aryan’, from Skr. ārjaḥ, “noble, honorable, respectable”, the name Sanskrit-speaking invaders of India gave themselves in the ancient texts, originally “belonging to the hospitable” from O.Ind. arjas, PIE álios, lord, hospitable lord, originally "protecting the stranger" from aliós, stranger. Ancient Persians gave themselves the same name (cf. O.Pers. arija-), hence ‘Iran’ (from Iranian Eran, from Avestan gen. pl. airjanam).

[87] PIE de is the base of different prepositions and adverbs; as, o-grade lengthened dō, to, toward, upward, Gmc. tō (cf. O.S., O.Fris. to, O.E. tō, Du. too, O.H.G. zuo, ze Ger. zu); compound qmdo (from qo), as Italic quando; de, from, out of, as deterós, and deteriṓs, worse, which gives deteriosā, deteriorate. Also, compare Lat. donec, Gk. suffix -de, Lith. da-, O.C.S. do, Celtic dī, O.Ir. do.

[88] Preposition kom, beside, near, by, with, is attested in Latin cum (O.Lat. com), co-, in Slavic (cf. O.C.S. kŭ, Russ. к, ко, ко-, O.Pol. k, ku), in Germanic ga- as participial, collective, and intensive prefix (cf. Goth., O.H.G. ga-, O.N. g-, O.E. ge-), “together, with”, also marker of the past participle, and in Celtic kom-, as collective prefix. It is also found as reduced form ko- in some common PIE compounds. Other derivatives include Latin kómtrā, against, opposite, as komtrāriós, contrary; also, komiós, common, shared, as Gk. κοινός, hence also loan words koimós, common, as in Koim, Koine, from Gk. κοινή.

[89] For PIE eghs, out, and variant form eks, compare Lat. ex, Oscan eh-, Umbrian ehe-, Gk. eks, Old Prussian is, Lith. ìš, iž, Ltv. is, iz, O.C.S. iz, izъ, is, Russ. iz, Gaul. ex-, O.Ir. ass, Welsh a, Alb. jashtë. For verbal compounds found in different languages, compare ek(s)bhero, carry out (from bher, carry), cf. Gk. ἐκ-φέρω, Lat. ef-ferō, O.Ir. as-biur, or eksei, go out (from eí, go), cf. Gk. ἔξ-ειμι, Lat. ex-eō, Lith. iš-eĩti, O.C.S. iz-iti. Derivatives include eks, eks-, out of, away from, as Lat. ex, ex-; eks, ek, out of, from, as Gk. ex, ek, as in ekso-, exo-, eksotikós, exotic, eksoterikós, exoteric, ksunékdokā, synecdocha (see dek), from Gk. συνεκδοχή; suffixed comparative variant eksterós, outward (feminine eksterā/ekstrā, on the outside), as in ekstraniós, extrange, eksternós, eksteriós, exterior, eksternalis, external, etc; ekstrēmós, outermost, extreme (-mo- functioning as superlative, see comparison of adjectives), as Lat. extrēmus; eghskatós, outermost, last, Gk. ἔσχατος, as in eghskatología, eschatology; Celtic eks, out (of), as in eksdīsedo- (see sed), or Balto-Slavic iz, from, out of.

For PIE dek, take, accept, compare dekē, be fitting (from “be acceptable”), Lat. decēre, as in dekénts, decent; suffixed causative o-grade dokeio, teach (from “cause to accept”), as Lat. docere, as in derivatives dokénts, dokilis, docile, doktṓr, doktrínā, dokoméntos, etc.; doko, appear, seem, think (from “cause to accept or be accepted”), as in dókmā, dogma, dokmatikós, dogmatic, doksología, doxology (from leg), parádoksos, conflicting with expectation, as Gk. παράδοξος (from para-, beside, see per) as in parádoksom, paradox, as Lat. paradoxum, or wrdhodoksía (see wrdho-, straight), orthodoxy, wrdhódoksos, orthodox, as Gk. ὀρθὀδοξος; suffixed form dékes, grace, ornament, as Lat. decus, decoris, and loans dekesā/dekorā, decorate, dekṓr, seemliness, elegance, beauty, dekorós, decorous; deknós, worthy, deserving, fitting, deign, déknitā, dignity, komdeknós, condign, deknidhakā, dignify, disdeknā, disdain, endeknā, indign, endeknánts, indignant; reduplicated didksko, learn, Lat. discere, as in loans di(dk)skípolos, disciple, di(dk)skiplínā, discipline; Greek words include pandéktās, as Gk. πανδέκται, ekdeko, understand, ksunekdeko, take on a share of, as Gk. συνεκδέχεσθαι, and ksunékdokā, synecdoche, as Gk. συνεκδοχή; also, o-grade suffix dókos, beam, support, as Gk. δοκός, in dwiplodókos, diplodocus (see dwo).

[90] For PIE upo, under, up from under, over, compare Gmc. upp (cf. Goth. iup, O.E. up, uppe, O.H.G. uf, M.L.G. up, Ger. auf); uponos, “put or set up”, open, as Gmc. upanaz (cf. O.N. opinn, O.E. open, O.H.G. offan, Swed. öppen, Dan. aaben, O.Fris. epen); suffixed upt(o), frequently, as Gmc. uft(a) (cf. Goth. ufta, O.N. opt, O.Fris. ofta, Dan. ofte, Ger. oft); variant sup, as Lat. sub, in supīnos, lying on the back (< “thrown backward or under”), or súpter, secretly, as Lat. subter, and súpo, as Gk. ὑπο-; variant upso (cf. also Hitt. upzi), as Greek úpsos, height, top; from compound upo-sto- (for st- see stā), “one who stands under”, servant, young man, as Cel. wasso-, into V.Lat. uassus, hence MIE upóstos/wóssos, vassal; úpolos, opal, Skr. upalaḥ, variant of uporós, lower, as Skr. upara- (from upo, Skr. upa, “below”), later borrowed as Gk. opallios, Lat. opalus. Compare Gmc. upp, Ita. sub/sup, Gk. hupo, Ind.-Ira. upa, Toch. /spe, Bal.-Sla. po, Cel. wo (cf. Gaul. Vo-, O.Ir. fo, Welsh go).

[91] For PIE -w, or, compare Lat. ue, Gk. ϝἐ, ἥ, O.Ind.,Ira. vā, Toch. wa-t/pa-t, Cel. ue, O.Ir. [n]ó, [n]ú, Welsh [ne-]u.

[92] PIE bhábhā, bean, broad bean, as Lat. faba, O.Pruss. babo, Russ. боб, Pol. bób, Welsh ffâen, Alb. bathë; also variant forms bháunā, as Gmc. baunō (cf. O.N. baun, O.E. bēan, O.H.G. bona, Ger. Bohne), and bhákos, lentil, as Gk. φακός.

[93] Indo-European snéich, snow (and noun snéichs, snow), as Skr. snēha, Av. snaēža, Toch. śiñcatstse, O.Pruss. snaygis, Lith. sniegas, Ltv. sniegs, O.C.S. snegu, Russ. снег, Polish śnieg, O.Ir. snechta, Welsh nyf. Other derivatives are o-grade snóichos, as Gmc. snaiwaz (cf. Goth. snaiws, O.N. snjór, O.E. snāw, O.S., O.H.G. sneo, O.Fris., M.L.G. sne, M.Du. snee, Du. sneeuw), and zero-grade snichs, as Lat. nix, niuis, and sníchā, as Gk. νιφα.

[94] Verb wegh, go, transport in a vehicle, move, is attested as “have weight, lift, carry” in Gmc. wegan (cf. Goth. gawigan, O.S. wegan O.N. vega, O.E. wegan, O.Fris. wega, Du. wegen, O.H.G. [bi]wegan, Ger. bewegen, wiegen), Lat. vehō, Osc. veia, Umb. ařveitu, Gk. ekhos, Skr. vahati, Av. vazaiti, Toch. wkäṁ/yakne, O.Pruss. vessis, Lith. vežu, Ltv. vest, O.C.S. vesti, Russ. vezti, Polish wieźć, Gaul. Uecturius, O.Ir. fecht, fén, Welsh gwain, Alb. vjedh, udhë. Common derivatives include wḗghā, weight, unit of weight, wee, from Gmc. wēgō; wéghtis, weight, as Gmc. (ga)wikhtiz (cf. O.N. vætt, O.E. gewiht, O.Fris. wicht, M.Du. gewicht); wéghos, way, course of travel, as Gmc. wegaz (cf. Goth. wigs, O.E., O.S., Du., O.H.G. weg, O.N. vegr, O.Fris. wei); o-grade wóghnos, wagon, as Gmc. wagnaz (cf. O.N. vagn, O.E. wægn, O.S., O.H.G. wagan, O.Fris. wein, Eng. wain); wóghlos, populace, mob, multitude (<”moving mass”), as Gk. οξλος; from Lat. uehere is p.part. weghtós, carried, giving wéghtōr, vector, wégheménts, vehement, wéghíkolom, vehicle, komwéghtiōn, convection, etc.; wéghiā, way, road, as Lat. uia, giving weghitikom, voyage, travel, Lat. uiaticum, weghiātikalis, viatical, komwéghiā, convey, and komwóghis, convoy (loan-translated from Fr. convoier, variant of conveier), deweghiā, deviate, opweghiā, obviate, opweghiós, obvious, praiweghiós, previous, weghiādúktos, viaduct, etc.; also, weghsā, agitate (from “set in motion”), as Lat. uexare; also, komweghsós, convex, (“carried or drawn together to a point”), from Lat. conuexus.

[95] Originally PIE root ter, over, gives verb tero, cross over, pass through, overcome, as Skr. tirati, tarati; also contracted as athematic verb trā, as probable O.Lat. trāre, which gave tran(t)s, across, over, beyond, through, as Lat. trans. Other derivatives include zero-grade tŕilos, hole (<“a boring through”), as Gmc. thurilaz (cf. O.E. þyrel, M.H.G. dürchel, Eng. thrill); tŕqe, through, as, Gmc. thurkh/thurukh (cf. Goth. þaírh, O.S. thuru, O.E. þurh, O.Fris. thruch, M.Du. dore, Du. door, O.H.G. durh); also, in néktār, nectar, drink of gods, from nek, death, and -tar, overcoming, as Gk. νέκταρ, and derivative nektarínā; verb trāio, protect, as Iranian thrāja-; extended truks, savage, fierce, grim (from “overcoming, powerful”), as Lat. trux, as trukulénts, truculent; and therefore also nasalized extended trunks, trunk, deprived of branches or limbs, mutilated (from overcome, maimed), Lat. truncus. Compare all IE derivatives meanig through, beyond: Gmc. thurkh, Lat. trans, Umb. traf, Gk. tar, Skr. tiras, Av. tarə, O.Ir. tre, Welsh tra.

For neks, death, dead person, murder, violent death, compare ON Naglfar, Lat. nex, Toch. näk, Lith. našlys, Ir. éc, Welsh angeu. Derivatives include nekrós, dead, corpse, as Gk. νεκρός; verb nekio, injure, harm, as Skr. naśyati, Av. nasyeiti, and its o-grade nokeio, as Lat. nocere, giving common derivatives as nokénts, nocent, or nnokénts, innocent, or nokuós, nocuous; also o-grade nóksā, injury, hurt, damage, as in noksiós, harmful, noxious, and opnoksiós, obnoxious.

[96] Indo-European verb dō, give, evolved (outside Germanic languages) as Lat. dare, Osc. dede, Umb. dadad, Gk. δίδωμι, Skr. dā, dádāti, Av. dadāiti, Pers. dadātuv, Pers. dādan, Phryg. dadón, Arm. tal, O.Pruss. dātwei, Lith. dúoti, Ltv. dot, deva, O.C.S. дати, Russ. дать, Pol. dać, Gaul. doenti, O.Ir. dán, Welsh dawn, Alb. dhashë, (Tosk dhënë, Geg dhąnë), Osset. daettyn, Kashmiri dẏyūn; Hitt. dā, Luw. da-, Lyd. da-, Lyc. da. Derivatives include zero-grade (as Lat. dare) datós, given, from which dátā, date (The Roman convention of closing every article of correspondence by writing “given” and the day and month, meaning “given to messenger”, led to data, “given (pl.)”becoming a term for “the time and place stated”), datíuos, dative (”the case of giving”), dátom, datum, trade, trado, (from trans+da), deliver, hand over, trade, part. tradatós, delivered, handed over, from which tradátiōn, delivery, surrender, a handing over/down, meaning both in Romance languages and English, as Lat. traditio, which gave O.Fr. tra(h)ison (Anglo-Fr. treson, Eng. treason, cf. It. tradimento, Spa. traicio), and O.Fr. tradicion (Eng. tradition, Fr. tradition, It. tradizione, Spa. tradicio); perdo, do away with, destroy, lose, throw away, as in perdátiōn, ruin, destruction, perdition; redo, give back, return, restore, giving part; redatós, rendered, and derivative réndatā, rent, payment for use of property (Romance rendita through V.Lat. reddita, influenced by Lat. vendita, “sold”, or maybe Lat. prendita, “taken”); wendo/wesnomdo, (from wésnom, v.i.), sell, praise, as Lat. uendere (contacted from Lat. uendumare, from older uēnumdare); also dṓnom, gift, as in dōnṓr, donor, donā, give, present, donate, komdōnā, condone, dōnátiōn, donation, dōnatíuos, donative, perdōnā, grant, forgive, pardon; dṓtis, dowry, marriage, portion, as Lat. dos, also Slavic dṓtia, gift, dacha, as Russ. dacha; dórom, gift, as Gk. δωρον; part. dótis, something given, and loan dósis, dosis, from Greek δόσις, both giving antidótom, antidote, lit. “given against”, anekdótā, anecdote, apodósis, epidótis, etc.

For PIE wes, buy, compare wésnom, sale, from Lat. uēnum, as in wesnalis, venal; suffixed wosno, buy, as in wósnā, buying, opswosn, cooked food, opswosno, buy food, hence opswósniom, purchasing of provisions, as Gk. ὀψώνιον, from which monopswósniom, monopsony; wésā, sale, which gives Eng. bazaar (see qel); suffixed weslís, cheap, base, hence worthless, vile, as Lat. uīlis, with derivatives like weslidhakā, hold cheap, vilify, weslipendo, vilipend (from spen).

Indo-European (s)pen, draw, stretch, spin, gives spenwo, spin, as Gmc. spinnan (cf. Goth. spinnan, O.N., O.Fris. spinna, O.H.G. spinnan, Dan. spinde, Du. spinnen, Ger. spinnen), from which spéntrā, “spinner”, spider, as Gmc. spinthrō (cf. O.E. spīþra, Dan. spinder, and other cognates M.L.G., M.Du., M.H.G., Ger. spinne, Du. spin); extended pendē (intransitive), hang, and pendo, cause to hang, weigh, with frequentative pensā, weigh, consider, as in pendénts, pendant, péndolom, pendulum, pénsiōn, pénsom, weigh, peso, adpende, append, adpéndiks, appendix, kompendiā, compend, kompéndiom, compendium, kompensā, compensate, dependē, depend, dependo, pay, expend, ekspendo, expend, enpendo, inpend, propendē, propend, rekompénsā, recompense, supspendo, suspend, etc.; suffixed péniā, lack, poverty (< “a strain, exhaustion”), as Gk. πενια, usually found as suffix -peniā; peno, to toil, and o-grade pónos, toil, verb pone, toil, as in geoponikós, geoponic, lithoponos (from Gk. loan word líthos, stone), lithopone; o-grade (s)pon-, as in spone, span, stretch, bind, as Gmc. spannan (cf. O.E. spannen, O.H.G. spannan, M.Du. spannen), spónā, span, Gmc. spanō (cf. O.E. spann; Gmc. word was borrowed into M.L. spannus, hence It. spanna, O.Fr. espanne, Fr. empan “distance”); also, spangā, clasp, spangle, from Gmc. spangō (cf. M.Du. spange); póndos, weight, giving Latin expression lībra pondō, “balance by weight” (borrowed into Gmc. punda, “pound”, cf. Goth. pund, O.Fris., O.N. pund, O.H.G. pfunt, Ger. Pfund, M.Du. pont); póndes, weight, giving derivatives (affected by rhotacism, cf. Lat. pondus, ponder-), pondesā/ponderā, weigh, ponder, as in preponderā, preponderate; sponti, “of one’s own accord”, as Lat. sponte (maybe from Gmc. spanan, “entice”), as in spontaniós, spontaneus.

[97] Indo-European bháres/bhars, spelt, barley, grain, is the root for Gmc. bariz/barz (cf. Goth. barizīns, O.N. barr, and also O.E. bær-lic, i.e. “barley-like”), Lat. far (stem farr-), Osc.,Umb. far, Phryg. brisa, OCS brašĭno, Welsh bara. Latin derivatives include bharínā, farina, bharinākiós, farinaceous, bharsgō, farrago, medley, mix of grains for animal feed.

[98] PIE verb bhél means thrive, bloom, sprout, as in bhóliom, leaf, as Lat. folium, Gk. φυλλον, as in eksbholiā, exfoliate, debholiā, defoliate, perbholiā, perfoliate, portbhóliom, portfolio, etc; suffixed o-grade bhlōuo, to flower, blow, as Gmc. blōwan (cf. O.E. blawan, O.H.G. blaen), bhlṓmōn, flower, blossom, as Gmc. blōmōn (cf. Goth. blōma, O.S. blomo, O.N. blómi, Du. bloem, O.H.G. bluomo, Eng. bloom); bhlōs, flower, blossom, as Gmc. bhlōs- (cf. O.E. blōstm, blōstma, Eng. blossom), Lat. flōs (stem flōr- due to rhotacism), as in bhlṓsā/bhlṓrā, flora, bhlōralis, floral, etc.; bhlṓtom, blood, as Gmc. blōthan (cf. Goth. bloþ, O.N. blóð, O.E.,O.Fris. blōd, M.Du. bloet, O.H.G. bluot), bhlōdio, bleed, as Gmc. blōthjan (cf. O.N. blæða, O.E. blēdan, Ger. bluten), bhlōtisā, bless, lit. “treat or hallow with blood”, (originally a blood sprinkling on pagan altars, this word was chosen in O.E. Bibles to translate Lat. benedicere and Gk. eulogein, and is not found with this sense in other Germanic dialects); bhlótos, blade, leaf, from Gmc. blathaz (cf. O.N. blad, O.Fris. bled, Ger. blatt). Other derivatives include Oscan Fluusaí,Toch. pält/pilta, O.Ir. bláth, Welsh blawd.

[99] IE verb dér, split, peel, flay, as Gmc. teran (cf. Goth. gatairan, O.E. teran, O.S. terian, M.Du. teren, O.H.G. zeran), Gk. δερειν, Skr. darati, Arm. terem, O.C.S. dera, and dérom, piece, as Bret. darn; dŕtom, “something separated or discarded”, turd, from Gmc. turdam (cf. O.E. tord, O.N. tord-, M.Du. torde, Du. tort-); der(r)is, leather covering, derris, from Gk. δερρις; dérmn, skin, derma-, as Gk. δέρμα, also as compound dérmnto-, dermato-.

English “tear” (drop from eye), comes from PIE dákrus, attested as Gmc. takhruz (cf. Goth. tagr, O.N. tár, O.Fris. tar, O.E. tēahor, O.H.G. zahar), Lat. lacrĭma (from suffixed dákru-mā, O.Lat. dacruma, compare with evolution of O.Lat. dingua -> Lat. lingua), Gk. δάκρυ, Skr. aśru, Av. asrūazan, Toch. ākär/akrūna, Arm. arc'unk', Lith. ašara, Ltv. asara, O.Ir. dér, Welsh deigryn.

[100] PIE root gno, know, gives derivatives gnēo, as Gmc. knē(w)an, (cf. O.E. cnāwan, O.H.G. bichnaan, irchnaan), gńo, know, know how to, be (mentally) able to, Gmc. kunnan (cf. Goth. kannjan, O.N. kenna, O.E. cunnan, O.Fris. kanna, O.H.G. irchennan), o-grade causative gónio, make known, declare, as Gmc. kannjan (cf. O.N. kenna, O.E. cennan, Eng. ken), gntós, known, well-known, usual, excellent, familiar, as Gmc. kunthaz (cf. O.E. cūth, Eng. couth), gńtitā, knowledge, acquaintance, friendship, kinfolk, as Gmc. kunthithō (cf. O.E. cyththu); gnōsko, kognōsko, get to know, get acquainted with, as in gnōtítiā, notice, gnṓtiōn, notion, gnōtoriós, notorious, kognítiōn, cognition, rekognōsko, recognize, etc.; suffixed -ro-, as ngnōrā, not to know, disregard, ignore, or gnros, knowing, expert, and verb gnar(r)ā, tell, relate, narrate; gnōdhlís, knowable, known, famous, noble, as Lat. nōbilis; part. gnōtós, known, noun gnṓtis (and as loan word gnṓsis) knowledge, inquiry, gnṓmōn, judge, interpreter, prognṓsis, diagnṓsis, agnṓsiā, etc., as Gk. γνῶσις, γνώμων; gńtis, knowledge, as Av. zainti-; also probably gnṓtā, note, mark, sign, cypher, as Lat. nota, as in adgnōtā, annotate, kognōtā, connote, etc., and also gnórmā, carpenter’s square, rule, pattern, precept, norm, as in gnormalis, normal, apgnormalis, abnormal, eghnormis (from eghs+gnorm-), irregular, extraordinary, very large, possibly a borrowing from Etruscan through Greek γνώμων, carpenter’s square, rule. For IE derivatives, compare Lat. nōscō/cognōscō, Umb. naratu, Gk. γιγνωσκειν, Skr. jānā́ti, Av. paitizānənti, O.Pers. xšnāsātiy, Toch. knān/nān, Arm. canot', O.Pruss. posinnāts, Lith. žinóti, žinaũ, Ltv. zināt, zinu, O.C.S.,O.Russ. знати, знаѬ, Russ. знать, Polish znać, Ir. gnath, Welsh gnawd, Alb. njeh, Kashmiri zānun Osset. zon; Hitt. kanes.

[101] PIE root ni, down, below, gives derivatives Skr. ni, Gk. neiothen, O.C.S. nizu, Russ. низ. A common derivative is nítero-, down, downwards, below, beneath, as níteros in Gmc. nitheraz (cf. O.S. nithar, O.N. niðr, O.E. niþera, neoþera, O.Fris. nither, Du. neder, Ger. nieder), or níterom in Skr. nitaram.

For PIE ńdher, under, also possibly derived from ni, compare Gmc. under (cf. Goth. undar, O.N. undir, O.Fris. under, Du. onder, O.H.G. untar), Pers. zēr, Arm. ĕndhup; also, compare ńdhos, below, as Skr. adhah; ndherós, lower, as Av. aðara-, Lat. īnferus, and ndheriós, inferior; ndhérnos, lower, inferno, and ndhernalis, infernal; ńdherā, infra, below. Other derivatives are

English hell, a translation of Lat. infernus, comes from an o-grade noun derived from PIE kel, cover, conceal, save, (cf. Skr. cala, O.Ir. cuile), viz. kóliā, the underworld (from “concealed place”), Gmc. khaljō (cf. O.N. hel, O.E., O.Fris. helle, Ger. Hölle, Goth. halja; Eng. hell may be from O.N. Hel, the underworld, goddess of death, another transfer of a pagan concept and its word to a Christian idiom); kol(l)ā, covered place, hall, as (dialectally geminated) Gmc. khallō (cf. Goth. halja, O.N. höll, O.E. heall, O.H.G. halla, Du. hal); suffixed koleiós, sheath, as Gk. κολεός; zero-grade kĺos, hole, hollow, as Gmc. khulaz (cf. Goth. us-hulon, O.N. holr, O.Fris., O.H.G. hol, O.E. hol, hulu, M.Du. hool, Ger. hohl, Eng. hole, hull); extended klām, in secret, as Lat. clam, in klamdestīnós, clandestine; kalupio, cover, conceal, as Gk. kaluptein, part. kaluptós, covered, as in eukalúptos, from Lat. eucalyptus, and MIE apokalúpsis, apocalypsis, from Church Lat. apocalypsis, itself from Gk. ἀποκάλυψις, IE apokalúptis, revelation; kélmos, helmet, helm, “protective covering”, as Gmc. khelmaz (cf. Frank. helm, O.E. helm, O.H.G. helm, M.Fr. helmet, dim. of helme); opkolo, cover over, and part. opkoltós, covered, occult, from which opkoltā, to occult; suffixed kólos (or as dialectal loan word kólōr affected by Lat. rhotacism), color, hue (lit. “that which covers”), from Lat. color; kélnā, storeroom, chamber, cellar, as Lat. cella; kéliom, lower eyelid, cilium; lengthened-grade kēlā, hide, like in komkēlā, conceal.

[102] A Proto-Indo-European stem (s)klau, hook, crooked or forked branch (used as a bar or bolt in primitive structures) is reconstructed for kláustrom, bar, bolt, barrier, as Lat. claustrum, and kláustrā, dam, wall, barricade, stronghold, for Lat. claustra; kláwos, nail, for Lat. clauus; kláwis, key, for Lat. clauis; skláuso, close, Gmc. skhleusan (cf. O.E. beclysan, O.H.G. sliozan, Ger. schlieel); also, compare Gk. kleidos, klobos, Lith. kliuti, kliaudziu, kliuvu, O.C.S. kljucu, kljuciti, O.Ir. clo, M.Ir. clithar.

PIE verb bhec, run, flee, is attested in Balto-Slavic as Lith. begu, O.C.S. begu, bezati; also bhécios, stream, (possibly from an unattested verb bhécio) in Gmc. bakjaz (cf. O.N. bekkr, Eng. beck); and in Greek with the meaning of flee in terror, also o-grade verb bhóco, put to flight, frighten, and noun bhócos, panic, flight, fear, as Gk. φόβος (hence -bhocía, Gk. -φοβία).

[103] For PIE ka(u)puts, head, and also fig. top, upper end, chief person, leader, compare Gmc. khaubuthan (Goth. haubiþ, O.N. haufuð, O.E. heafod, O.H.G. houbit, O.Fris. haved, Ger. Haupt), Skr. kapucchala, Lat. caput.

[104] PIE verb dem, domesticate, gives o-grade domio, tame, domesticate, as Gmc. tamjan (cf. Goth. gatamjan, O.E. temja, O.E. tem, O.H.G. zemmen); domós, domesticated, tame, Gmc. tamaz (cf. O.N. tamr, O.S., O.Fris., M.L.G., M.Du., O.E. tam, O.H.G. zam, Ger. zahm); dómā, tame, subdue, as Lat. domāre; dḿo, tame, as Gk. δαμαν, with derivative ndmánts [n̥-dm̥-‘ants], not malleable, adamant, (lit. “not domesticable”) and ndḿants or loan word diamánts, diamond, from Vulg.Lat. diamas,-antis, altered from Lat. adămas,-antis, from Gk. ἀδάμας. Other derivatives include Skr. dāmyati, Av. dam, Pers. dām, O.Ir. damnaim, Welsh addef, Osset. domun; Hitt. damaašzi.

For spék, observe, compare spékōn, watcher, spy, as Gmc. spekhōn (cf. Frank. spehon, O.H.G. spehon, M.Du. spien, Ger. spähen, Spion, Eng. spy); spekio, look at, as Lat. specere, found in modern words like spékimēn, spéktrom, spekolā, especulate, spékolom, adspéktos, aspect, ekspektā, expect, perspektíuā, perspective, respektā, look, respect, supspektā, suspect, etc.; spékiēs, seeing, sight, form, species, as in spekiālis, special; speks, watcher, “he who sees”, in Lat. compounds; dēspekā, despise, look down on; metathesized Grek forms as skepio (from spekio), examine, consider, as in skeptikós, skeptic, Gk. σκεπτικός; or o-grade skópos (from spókos), one who watches, or object of attention, aim, target, (as Eng. scope) and verb skopeio, see, as in modern joroskópos, horoscope, lit. “time-watcher”, from Gk. ὡροσκόπος, qēleskópiom, from Mod.Lat. telescopium (using Greek loan words), or episkópos, overseer, bishop (Eng. bishop comes from O.E. bisceope, itself from Vulgar Latin ebiscopus), episkopalis, episcopal, etc.

[105] For PIE sals, salt, compare Lat. sāl, Umb. salu, Gk. hals, Skr. salila, Illyr. Salapia, Toch. sāle/sālyiye, Arm. aġ, O.Pruss. sal, Lith. saldus, Ltv. sāļš, OCS soli, Russ. соль, Polish sól, O.Ir. salann, Welsh halen, Alb. gjelbson. It gives derivatives as sáldom, Gmc. saltom (cf. O.S., O.N., O.Fris., Goth. salt, O.E. sealt, O.H.G. salz, Du. zout), zero-grade sĺdiā, salt, salt marsh, souse, as Gmc. sultjō (cf. M.E. cylte, Dan.,Nor. sylt, Eng. silt, and O.Fr. sous, into Eng. souse), saldo, to salt, as Lat. sallere, and p.part. saldtós, or as loan word salsós, as in sálsā, sauce, salsa; from Lat. sāl is saláriom, salary, salátā, salad, or salámis; it gives also words for sea, from “salty water”, as in Greek, or in Latin sálom.

PIE root sol (or *solh₂) means whole, and is attested in common derivative solwós, whole, intact, uninjured, as Gk. ὁλος (Ion. οὖλος), Skr. sarvah, Av. haurva, O.Pers. haruva, giving modern words like solwokáustom, holocaust (from neuter Lat. holocaustum, itself from Gk. ὁλόκαυστος, “burned hole”), solwograbhikós, holographic (for gerbh-, v.i. A), or katsolwikós, universal, catholic (also as loan word MIE katholikós, from Lat. catholĭcus, Gk. καθολικός, for kat, v.i. B). Also, compare solidós, solid, in komsolidā, consolidate, solidariós, jointly liable (source akin to Eng. soldier), sol(i)dtos, soldier, from Lat. solidātus (from sólidos, a Roman gold coin, also salary, lit “one having pay”, cf. It. soldato, Fr. soldat, Spa.,Pt. soldado, Swe.,Nor.,Ger. soldat, Du. soldaat, Russ., Ukr. солдат etc.); sólos, whole, entire, unbroken, as solikitós, solicit, solicitous, or solemnís, solemn, from Lat. (dialectal geminated form) sollus; as zero-grade sálūs, health, as in salutā, greet; also in salwós, whole, safe, healthy, uninjured, from Lat. salvus (into O.Fr. sauf, and then to Eng. safe).

A. For PIE gerbh, scratch, compare Gmc. kerban (cf. O.E. ceorfan, O.H.G. kerban, Eng. carve, Ger. kerben); zero-grade gŕbhis, a cutting(off), as Gmc. kurbiz (O.E. cyrf, Eng. kerf); o-grade gróbhis, edible crustacean, as Gmc. krabiz/krab(b) (cf. O.E. crabba, O.N. krafla, O.H.G. kerbiz, L.Ger. krabben, Eng. crab, crayfish, crawl); gŕbho, scratch, draw, write, as gŕbhmn [‘gr̥b^h-mn̥] (or as Gk. loan word grábhma-), picture, letter, piece of writing, and gŕbhmā, line, with derivatives as (loan words) grbhmntik/grabhmátikā, grammar, from Gk. γραμματική, and ghŕbhikos, graphic, anágrbhmn, anagram, epígrbhmn, epigram, nghrbhía, agraphia, epigrbh, epigraph, as Gk. ἐπιγραφή, parágrbhos, paragraph, prógrbhmn, programme, etc; also, W.Gmc. grafa, “count” (cf. M.Du. graave, M.L.G. grave, Ger. graf, Eng.-grave), possibly a borrowing from grabheus, Gk. grapheus, “scribe”. For other IE derivatives, compare O.Pruss gīrbin, Ltv. grīpsta, O.C.S. žrĕbŭ, Russ. žrebij, Arm. kerel/gerel, Alb. gërvish.

[106] For Indo-European bhlēig, shine, compare Gmc. blīkh(j)an (cf. O.N. blíkja, O.Ice. bleikr, O.H.G. blīhhan, bleih, O.E. blīcan, Ger. Blech), Lith. blaikštaũs, blaikštýtis, blyškė́ti, Ltv. bližģēt, blaiskums, O.C.S. блѣскъ, блисцати, Russ. blesk, Pol. blask.

[107] PIE verb bhél, blow, swell, inflate, is the root for various derivatives including round objects and the notion of tumescent masculinity; as, bhĺā, round vessel, rounded object, bowl, bole, boll, as in Gmc. bullō (cf. O.N. bolle, bolr, O.E.,O.H.G. bolla, M.H.G. bole, M.Du. bolle, bille); zero-grade and bhĺōn, fuller, as Lat. fullō; bhĺōnos, bull, as Gmc. bullōnaz (cf. O.N. boli, O.E. bula, M.Du., Ger. bulle), bhĺokos, bull, as Gmc. bullukaz (cf. O.E. bulluc), bhĺnos, phallus, as Gk. φαλλός; o-grade (dialectally geminated -l in Germanic) bhól(l)os, ball, bhól(l)ā, ball, bullet, round roll, bhól(l)ikos, testicles, bollix (cf. O.E. beallucas); bholtós, bold, from Gmc. balthaz (cf. Goth. balþei, O.N. ballr, baldr, O.E. bald, beald, O.H.G. bald); suffixed bhólnis, bellows, inflated ball, as Lat. follis (cf. Eng. follicle, folly, fool); possibly bhálainā, whale, from Gk. φάλαινα.

[108] MIE dmōn, time, is a loan translation from Germanic tīmōn, (cf. O.Eng. tīma, O.N. timi, Swe. timme), and is derived from PIE root dā, divide, as in dmos, people, land (from “division of society”), from Gk. δημος, as in dāmokratía, democracy v.i., dāmogrbhía, demography, epidāmía, pandāmía, dāmagṓgos, etc.; alternative root dajo, divide, as in geōdáisia, earth division, geodesy; dáimōn, divider, provider, hence divinity, later “demon, daimon”, v.i.; dtis, division of time, time, season, as Gmc. tīdiz (cf. O.S., O.E. tid, Du. tijd, O.H.G. zīt, Ger. Zeit, Eng. tide), and verb dītio, happen, from “occur in time”, Gmc. tīdjan (cf. O.E. tīdan).

It is unrelated to Lat. tempus, which has an unknown origin. For the Latin word and its derivatives, Modern Indo-European uses loan word témpos (also leaving Lat. rhotacism); as, komtemporariós, contemporary; témpolā, temple; témperā, temper, moderate, regulate; temporisā, temporize, etc.

PIE krátos, power, strength, (like Gk. κράτος) gives suffix -kratía, power, rule, as Gk. - κρατία, adjective kratús, strong, as Gk. κρατυς or alternative kartús, hard, as Gmc. kharthus (cf. Goth. hardus, O.N. harðr, O.E. heard, O.H.G. harto, Du. hard), maybe from PIE root kar-.

Greek δαιμων meant divinity. For Greeks and Romans dæmons were supernatural beings “replete with knowledge”, “divine power”, “fate” or “god”, not necessarily evil. Within the Christian tradition, ideas of “demons” derived as much from the literature that came to be regarded as apocryphal and even heretical as it did from the literature accepted as canonical. It happened more or less like with PIE djeus (originally meaning heaven, sky, hence sky-god, cf. O.E. Tig, Lat. deus, Gk. Ζεύς, Skr. devaḥ, Lith. devas, O.C.S. deivai), reduced in its Persian meaning as a special (bad) kind of divinity, giving daēva-, “spirit, demon”, so in Asmodeus, Old Persian Æshma, later Æshmadæva.

[109] PIE root bher-, with derivatives meaning brown, shining, gives bhrūnós, brown, shining, as Gmc. brūnaz (cf. O.E. brūn, O.N. brúnn, M.Du. bruun, adopted into Romance languages through M.L. brunus, cf. It., Sp. bruno, Fr. brun); reduplicated bhébhrus, brown animal, beaver, as Gmc. bebruz (cf. O.E. beofor, O.H.G. bibar, Low Ger. bever), Lith. bebrus, Cz. bobr, Welsh befer; bhérā/bhérnus, bear, lit. “brown animal” (as O.E. bera, O.H.G. bero, from Gmc. berō, or O.N. björn, from Gmc. bernuz). Compare Lat. fiber, Gk. phrynos, Skr. bhallas, babhrus, Av. bawra, Toch. parno/perne, paräṁ/perne, O.Pruss. bebrus, Ltv. bērs, bebrs, Lith. bėras, bebras, Russ. bobr, Gaul. Bibrax, Welsh befer.

[110] Indo-European línom, flax, although sometimes considered a borrowing from a non-Indo-European language, is found in many IE dialects; as, Gmc. linam (cf. Goth. lein, O.E. lin, O.H.G. lin, O.N. lín, Ger. Leinen, Eng. linen), Lat. līnum, Gk. linon, O.Pruss. linno, Lith. linas, Ltv. lini, O.C.S. lĭnŭ, Russ. lën, Polish len, O.Ir. lín, Welsh llin, Alb. liri/lîni.

[111] PIE chén, strike, kill, slay, as Gk. θείνω, φόνος, Skr. hánti, Av. ǰainti, O.Pers. ajanam, Arm. gan, O.Pruss. guntwei, gunnimai, Lith. genù, giñti, ginù, gìnti, Ltv. dzęnu, dzìt, O.C.S. гънати, женѫ, O.Russ. гънати, жену, Cz. hnáti, ženu, Polish gnać, O.Ir. gonim, Ir. gandr, gonadh, Alb. gjanj; Hitt. kwen, Lyd. qẽn-; Slavic gъnanъ, which stands out in a Satem dialect, appears to be from a source akin to O.Ind. (ā)ghnānás, Av. avaġnāna-, an original gn- form, which didn’t undergo the satemization process. It gives derivatives as o-grade chónon, slayer, cause of ruin or destruction, as Gmc. banōn (cf. Goth. banja, O.N. bani, O.E. bana, O.Fris. bona, O.H.G. bana), which gives also MIE loan word chónā, way, road, as in autochónā, Autobahn, cf. M.H.G. ban, bane, Ger. Bahn, “way, road” (from “strike” in a technical sense like “swath”); suffixed chńtiā, war, battle, as Gmc. gundjō (cf. O.Ice. gandr, O.E. gūþ, O.N. gunnr into O.E. gunne, giving Mod. Eng. gun), also in chntiāpánōn, standard, “battle flag”, as O.H.G. gundfano, It. gonfalone (for pan-, v.i.); suffixed form chend, giving prefixed verbs in Latin as dēchendo, ward off, defend, and opchendo, strike against, be offensive, offend; also, suffixed zero-grade chńtros, poison, as Pers. zahr, O.Ira. jathra-.

[112] PIE génus, knee, perhaps originally angle, gives Lat. genū, Gk. gonu, Skr. jānu, Av. znum, Pers. zānu, Illyr. Genusus, Toch. kanweṃ/kenīne, Arm. cunr, Russ. звено; Hitt. genu, Palaic ginu-. Variants include Greek o-grade forms, as gónus, knee, which gives polúgonom, polygonum, and gṓniā, angle, corner, which gives gonós, angled, and derivative neuter suffix -gonom, Eng. -gon; also, alternate form gneu-, giving neuter noun gnéwom, knee, as Gmc. knewam (cf. Goth. kniu, O.N. kne, O.E. cnēo[w], O.Fris. kni, M.Du. cnie, O.H.G. kniu), and extended verb gnéwio, kneel, “with bent knee”, as Gmc. knewjan (cf. Goth. knussjan, O.E. cneow[l]ian, Eng. kneel), or Gk. γνυξ.

[113] PIE chers, heat, warm, gives common derivatives as Germanic alternative forms chrenwo, burn, be on fire, intransitive, as Gmc. brennan (cf. Goth. brinnan, O.N. brenna, O.E. beornan, byrnan O.H.G. brinnan), and chrenwio, burn, kindle, transitive, as Gmc. brannjan (cf. O.E. bærnan); chróndos, burning or flaming torch, hence also sword, as Gmc. brandaz (cf. O.E. brand, brond, Du. branden, also Frank. brand, into O.Fr.,O.Prov. brand); chermós, warm, hot, and chérmā, heat, also neuter chérmom, giving -chermia, Eng. -thermy, as Gk. θερμος. Also, Lat. chórkaps, (-kaps is Lat. agential suffix, -keps, “-taker”, from PIE kap), forceps; chórnos/chórnus, oven, as Lat. furnus, fornus; chórniks, arch, vault (from “vaulted brick oven”), as in chornikā, fornicate; chŕtom, clarified butter, ghee, as Skr. ghṛtam. Other known derivatives are Skr. ghṛṇa, Av. garəma, O.Pers. garmapada, Pers. garm, Phryg. germe, Thrac. germas, Arm. jerm, O.Pruss. goro, Lith. garas, Ltv. gars, Russ. žar, O.Ir. fogeir, Welsh gori, Alb. zjarr, Kashmiri germi, garū'm; Hitt. war.

[114] Indo-European verb éus, burn, is attested in Gmc. uzjan (cf. ON usli, and in compound [aim]uzjo, cf. as O.N. [eim]yrja, O.H.G. [eim]uria, O.E. [ǣm]erge, Ger. [Amm]ern, Eng. [emb]er), Lat. ūrō, Gk. heuō, Skr. oṣati, Lith. usnis, Ltv. usna, Alb. ushël.

[115] PIE root cṓus, cow, bull, ox, perhaps ultimately imitative of lowing (cf. non-IE Sumerian gu, Chinese ngu, ngo), gives Gmc. kōuz (>kūz, cf. O.N. kú, O.E. cū, O.H.G. cuo, Eng. cow, Ger. Kuh), Lat. bōs (stem bou-), Gk. bous, Skr. gauḥ. Derivatives include cṓukana, horn, trumpet, “bellower” (compound with kan-, singer, v.i.); cṓucalos, gazelle (orig. “wild cow”), later buffalo, as Gk. βούβαλος (compare with Lat. būbulus, and as alternative cṓwalos with Skr. gavalaḥ, all referring to wild animals); suffixed cṓunos, ox, as Pali goṇa-; cṓuros, wild ox, as Skr. gauraḥ; zero-grade suffixed cwā, as in compound semkmtómcwā, hecatomb, “sacrifice of a hundred oxen” (see sem, one, kḿtom, hundred), Gk. ἑκατόμβη. Compare all IE derivatives: Gmc. kōuz, Lat. bōs, Osc. buv-, Umb. bum, Gk. βους, Skr. gaus, Av. gáus, Pers. gāv, Thrac. bonassos, Toch. ko/keŭ, Arm. kov Ltv. govs, Russ. govjado, O.Ir. bó, Welsh buw, Kamviri go, Kashmiri gāv, Osset. gal.

[116] Indo-European cers, mount, gives also córā, mountain; cf. Hom.Gk. βορέης, Att.Gk. βορέᾱς, βορρᾱς, O.Ind. giríṣ, Av. gairi-, O.Pers. gar, gīr, Arm. ler, O.Pruss. garian, Lith. girià, guras, O.C.S. гора, горѣ, Russ. гора, Pol. góra, Alb. gur.

English word “mount” comes from Anglo-Fr. mount, itself from O.Fr. mont and O.E. munt, both from Lat. mons, montis, MIE móntis, mountain, (cf. Welsh mynydd), which gives montanós, mountanious, montániā, mountain (from V.Lat. montanĕa, feminine noun of V.Lat montaneus, in turn from Lat. montanus), montíkolos, monticule, montā, go up, ascend, climb, mount, as in admontā, amount. It is derived from PIE base men, stand out, project, source of some Western Indo-European words for projecting body parts, as zero-grade mńtos, mouth, Gmc. munthaz (cf. Goth. munþs, O.N. munnr, O.E. muþ, O.Fris. muth, M.Du. mont, Ger. Mund), or méntom, chin, as Lat. mentum; mńā, projecting point, threat, Latin minae, giving mnkiā, menace, prōmnā, drive (animals) onward, (from prō, forth, and mnā, drive animals with shouts), as in prōmntā, promenade; mnē, project, jut, threaten, as ekmnē, stand out, giving ekmnḗnts, eminent, enmnē, overhang, giving enmnḗnts, inminent, or promnē, jut out, as in promnḗnts, prominent, or promntóriom, promontory, from p.part. promntós.

A proper PIE word for “mouth” is os, as in O.E. ōr, ON oss, Lat. ōs, Skr. ās, oṣṭha, Av. aosta, O.Pruss. austo, Lith. uosta, Ltv. osta, Russ. usta, Kamviri âša, Hitt. aiš. Derivatives affected by rhotacism are usually from Lat. stem ōr-, as in osalis, oral, osidhákios, orifice, but most are not affected, as dim. ṓskillom, swing (from “small mask of Bacchus”), giving verb ōskillā, oscillate, and noun ōskillātiōn, oscillation; also, ṓskolom, osculum, giving enoskolā, provide with an opening, inosculate, and also ṓstiom, door, ostium, giving ōstisios, doorkeeper, ostiary (M.Eng. hostiary), etc.

[117] PIE root noch-, naked, gives nochetós/nochotós, as Gmc. nakwethaz/nakwathaz (cf. Goth. naqaþs, O.N. nökkviðr, O.Swed. nakuþer, O.E. nacod, O.Fris. nakad, O.H.G. nackot, M.Du. naket), nochedós, as Lat. nūdus, nochmós, metathesized as chomnós in Gk. γυμνος, as in chomnasía, gymnastics, chomnástā, gymnast, from Gk. γυμναστής, etc., and nochnós, as Skr. nagna, O.Pers. nagna-; compare also Av. maġna, Lith. nuogas, Ltv. nogs, OCS nagŭ, Russ. nagoj, Polish nagi, O.Ir. nocht, Welsh noeth, Kashmiri naṅgay, Hitt. nekumant.

[118] Noun ármos, arm, upper arm, earlier *h₂rmo-, is attested as Gmc. armaz (cf. Goth. arms, O.N. armr, Eng. earm, O.H.G. aram, O.S., M.Du., arm, O.Fris. erm), Lat. armus, Gk. ἁρμός, Skr. irmas, Arm. armunk, O.C.S. ramo, O.Prus. irmo Osset. arm. Interesting derivatives include árma, (pl. of ármom), tools, arms, armatós, armed, armátā, army, armaténelos, armadillo, armatósā, armature, loan word alármā (from O.It. allarme, from all'arme, “to arms”, which could be loan-translated as ad armā), disarmā, disarm, loan word gendárme ( “mounted soldiers, men-at-arms”, from O.Fr. gent-d'armes, which could be loan-translated as gntármās); armonía, from Gk. ἁρμός, joint, shoulder. Base arm- comes ultimately from PIE root ar-, which gives derivaitves like ártis, art, skill, craft, from Lat. ars, as in verb artio, instruct in the arts, as Lat. artīre, and its p.part. artitós, skilled in the arts, which gives artitinos, artisan (from It. artigiano, from V.Lat. artitiānus), artístā, lettered person, artist, from Med.Lat. artista; further suffixed artiós, fiting, even, as Gk. ἄρτιος; ártus, joint (Lat. artus, translation of Gk. arthron, v.i.) as in artíkolos, joint, article; artós, tight, as in artā, compress, and koartā, coarctate; árdhrom, joint, from Gk. ἄρθρον, as in ardhrósis, enardhrósis, ksunardhrósis, etc.; suffixed superlative aristós, best, as in aristokratía, aristocracy, from Gk. ἀριστοκρατία.

Probably from the same root are (then o-grade suffixed form) ōrdhio, begin to weave, as Lat. ōrdīrī; further suffixed ṓrdhōn, order (originally a row of threads in a loom), from Lat. ōrdō, as in loan words ōrdhonā, order, ōrdhonatós, ordinate, orderly, koōrdhonā, coordinate, supōrdhonā, subordinate, enōrdhonā, inordinate, ōrdhonasiós, ordinary, etc.; or differently suffixed ōrnā, adorn, ornate, as Lat. ōrnāre.

[119] For PIE bhrtēr, brother, compare Gmc. brothar (cf. Goth. brōþar, ON bróðir, O.E. brōþor, O.H.G. bruoder), Lat. frāter, Osc. fratrúm, Umb. fratrom, Gk. φρά̄τηρ (phrātēr), Skr. bhrātṛ, Av. brātar, O.Pers. brātar, Pers. barādar, Kurd. bra, Phryg. brater, Illyr. bra, Toch. pracer/procer, Arm. եղբայր (ełbayr <*erbair), O.Pruss. brāti, bratrīkai, Lith. broterė̃lis, brolis, Ltv. brātarītis, brālis, OCS братръ, братъ, Russ. брат, Polish brat, Gaul. brātir, O.Ir. bráthir Welsh brawd, Kamviri bṛo, Kashmiri boy, Osset. ærvad Lyd. brafr-, Venetic vhraterei,. Derivatives include common bhrātría, brotherhood ,phratry, as O.Cz. bratřie, O.Pol. braciá, Gk. φρᾱτρία; O.Ind. bhrātryam; also, Latin derivatives bhrā, fra, monk, bhrāternalis, fraternal, bhrātérnitā, fraternity, bhrāternisā, fraternize, kombhrtēr, confrere, bhrātrikdiom, fratricide (the killing), bhrātrikdā, fratricide (the killer) .

[120] For cenā, woman, wife, originally maybe “honoured woman”, compare Gmc. kwenōn (cf. Goth. qino, O.N. kona, O.S. quan, O.E. cwene, O.H.G. quena, Eng. quean), Gk γυνή, O.Ind. janis, gnā, Av. jainish, gənā, Pers. زن (zæn), Phryg. bonekos, Toch. śäṁ/śana, Arm. kin, O.Pruss. genno, O.C.S. žena, Russ. žena, Polish żona, Alb. zonjë, O.Ir. ben, Welsh benyw; Luw. wanatti. Derivatives include West Gmc. cḗnis, woman, wife, queen, as Gmc. kwēniz (cf. Goth. qéns, O.E. cwen, see “queen”), and Greek cńā [g^wn̥-ā], giving -cnā, -gyne, cno-, gyno-, -cnós, -gynous, -cnia, -gyny, and derivatives with cnai-ko- (see a-declension in nouns for more on this special derivatives, which give Mod.Gk. γυναίκα), gyneco-, as cenakokratía/cnaikokratía, gynecocracy, cenakología/cnaikología, gynecology, etc.

For other IE derivatives meaning “woman, wife” compare:

I. Latin has:

I.A. From PIE dhē(i), suck, suckle, (also “produce, yield”), as dhḗmnā, woman, lit. “she who suckles”, as Lat. femina (cf. Fr. femme, Rom. femeie, as Mod.Eng. female), dhēmnīnós, feminine, ekdhēmnā, effeminate, similar to dhḗlus, female, fruitful as Gk. θήλυς . Other derivatives from the same root include dhétos, pregnancy, childbearing, offspring, with adj. dhētós, -, -óm, pregnant; suffixed reduced dhēkuondós, fruitful, fecund; dhḗnom, hay (from “produce”), as Lat. fēnum, faenum; dhēl(l)ā, suck, as in dhēlltiōn, fellatio; dhēlíks, fruitful, fertile, lucky, happy, as Lat. felix, as in dhēlikitā, happiness, felicity, ndhēlikitā, unhappiness, infelicity, dhēlikitā, felicitate; dhḗlā, mother’s breast, nipple, as Gk. θηλή, hence endodhḗlā, endothelium, epidhḗlā, epithelium, medhjodhḗlā, mesothelium. Other derivatives include Gmc. dē-/dā- (Goth. daddjan, O.Swed. dia, O.H.G. tila), Skr. dhayati, dhayah, O.C.S. dojiti, dojilica, deti, Russ. деть, Pol. dzieję, O.Prus. dadan, Lith. dele, O.Ir. denaim, dinu.

I.B. From dómūnos, lord (cf. O.Ind. damūnas, Lat. dominos), is dómūnā, woman, woman in charge, lady, Lat. domina (cf. It. donna, Cat. dona, also found as Fr. dame, Spa. doña/dueña, Pt. dona), derived from dṓmos, house, already seen. From Fr. dame are loan words as Nor. dame, Ger. Dame, etc. as well as Eng. madame, madam, ma’am, from O.Fr. ma dame, lit. “my lady”, from L. mea domina (cf. It. madonna), MIE mā dómūnā.

And all the aforementioned PIE bases may have been originally (but unlikely) derived from root mel/mol (from older *melh₁), to grind, rub, crush, with derivatives referring to various ground or crumbling substances. Common derivatives include mélwōn, flour, meal, as Gmc. melwan (cf. Goth. malan, O.N. mala, O.E. melu, O.H.G. malan, Eng. meal, Ger. malen), mĺdā, soil, earth, as Gmc. muldō (cf. Goth. mulda, O.N. mold, O.Fris.,O.E. molde, O.H.G. molta); mólā, millstone, mill (coarse meal customarily sprinkled on sacrificial animals), as Lat. molere, giving molāsis, molar, molínom, mill, moulin, enmolā, immolate, ekmole, grind out, as in ekmoloméntom, emolument, gain, originally a miller's fee for grinding grain; suffixed mélijom, millet, as Lat. milium; suffixed variant málnios, hammer, mallet, Lat. malleus; zero-grade Greek mĺā, mĺos, millstone, mill; extended mlnos, pancake, as O.Russ. blinu. Also, compare Umb. kumaltu, Toch. malyw-/mely-, Arm. malem, Lith. malti, Ltv. malt, OCS melję, Russ. melju, Polish mleć, O.Ir. melim Welsh malu, Alb. miell; Hitt. mallanzi.

PIE root mel means also:

a. IE (s)mel, “soft”, with derivatives referring to soft or softened materials of various kinds. Extended as meldo, melt, as Gmc. meltan; meldio, milt, as Gmc. miltja (cf. O.E., M.Du. milte), móldos, malt, as Gmc. maltaz (cf. O.N. malt, O.E. malt, mealt, Ger. Malz); suffixed variant mlédsnos, slime, as Gk. blennos; mldús/mldwís, soft, as Lat. mollis; nasalized variant mlandós, smooth, caressing, flattering, soft-spoken, as Lat. blandus; variant form smeld, smelt, as Gmc. smelt (cf. O.E. smelt, smylt, O.H.G. smalz, M.Du, M.L.G. smelten, Ger. Schmelz, and O.Fr. esmail), also loan word (from a Gmc. source into It. smalto or Prov. esmalt), smáldos, smalt, enamel, glaze; extended meldhiós, mild, as Gmc. mildjaz (cf. Goth. mildiþa, O.N. mildr, O.E. milde, O.Fris. milde, O.H.G. milti, Du. mild); máldhā, mixture of wax and pitch, as Gk. maltha; mélskos, mild, mellow, as Gmc. milskaz (cf. O.E. melisc, mylsc, Eng. mulch), mlakos, soft, as Gk. mlakós [ml̥-a-‘kos], soft, as Gk. μαλακός, as in mlakología, malacology, osteomlákiā; Celtic mólton, sheep, as O.Fr. moton into Eng. mutton; zero-grade mlús, blunt, dull, dim, as Gk. amblus. Other derivatives include Skr. mrduḥ, Lat. molere, Gk. myle, O.C.S. mlato, also borrowing Finnish mallas.

English “soft” comes from O.E. softe “gentle, easy, comfortable”, from W.Gmc. samfti, MIE from Gmc. samftijaz “level, even, smooth, gentle, soft” (cf. O.S. safti, O.H.G. semfti, Ger. sanft, M.Du. sachte, Du. zacht), MIE sombhtís, sombhtijós, from IE base som- “fitting, agreeable”, as in modern English derivative sombhtowórā, software.

For PIE wer, perceive, watch out for, compare (ko)worós, watchful, aware, alert, wary, as Gmc. (ga)waraz (cf. Goth. wars, O.N. varr, O.S. giwar, O.E. (ge)wær, O.H.G. giwar, M.Du. gheware, Eng. wary, Ger. gewahr); suffixed wórtos, guard, watching, keeper, as Gmc. wardaz (cf. O.S. ward, O.N. vörðr, O.E. weard, O.H.G. wart, also Fr.,Da. garde, Spa.,Pt. guarda, also into Eng. ‘lord’ and ‘steward’), and wortā, guard, ward, as Gmc. wardōn (cf. O.N. varða, O.S. wardon, O.E. warian, wearian, O.Fris. wardia, O.H.G. warten, M.Du. waerden Ger. warten, O.N.Fr. warder, O.Fr. guarder); wórā, goods, protection, ware, as Gmc. waro (cf. O.E. waru, O.Fris. were, M.Du. were, M.H.G., Ger. ware, Du. waar, Swed. vara, Dan. vare), as in English loan translations sombhtowórā, software, and kartuwóra, hardware (see kratos); also, suffixed wórwos, guard, as Gk. ouros; variant sworā, see, as Gk. horān, in pansworama, panorama; suffixed werē, respect, feel awe for, as Lat. uerērī, in rewerē, revere.

c. IE mel, false, bad, wrong, gives Latin loan words málos, bad, mális, ill (< mali-chnós, harmful, from chen, kill), as in malghábitos, malady, from mali-ghabitós, in poor condition (see ghabh), malria, “bad air”, malaria (from malā-aḗriā), malidhaktṓr, malefactor, malidhakós, malefic, etc.; zero-grade mls, into mlsbhāmós, “speaking evil”, blaspheme (from bhā, speak); meliōs, treacherous, as Av. mairiia-, into Eng. ‘markhor’.

II. Germanic has:

II.A. English “wife” is possibly from PIE nominal root ghwībhs, shame, pudenda, as Toch. kip/kwipe, “female pudenda”, giving (gh)wbhom, woman, wife, (with semantic weakening from the original meaning) from Gmc. wībam (cf. O.N. vif, O.S., O.Fris., O.E. wif, Dan., Swed. viv, M.Du. wijf, O.H.G. wib, Ger. Weib). Some reconstruct it as ultimately from same source as general IE cénā, woman.

II.B. Indo-European prṓwā, mistress, woman, gives Gmc. frawō (cf. O.H.G. frouwa, M.H.G. vrouwe, Ger. Frau, Du. vrouw, Yiddish froy), and comes from PIE per.

[121] Proto-Indo-European ékwos may have been a suffixed form akin to the lengthened o-grade adjective ōkús, swift, fast (as Lat. ocior, ocius, Gk. ὠκὺς); compare Gmc. ekhwaz (cf. Goth. aiƕa, O.N. iór, O.Eng. eoh) Lat. equus, Gk. ἱππος, Skt. aśva, Av. asva-, Phryg. es', Pers. aspa/asb, Kamviri ušpa, Toch. yuk/yakwe; Old. Pruss. awinan, Lith. ašva, Gaul. epos, O.Ir. ech/each; Welsh ebol; Arm. ēš, Thrac. esvas, Venetic ekvon; Hitt. aśuwas Lyc. esbe-. Common words derived from Greek are ekwopótamos, hippopotamus (from Gk. pótamos, river, from pet, v.i.), lit. “river-horse”, ekwokámpos, hippocampus, ekwodrómos (from Gk. -δρόμος, racecourse), hippodrome, ekwogrū́ps, hippogriff (from It. grifo, Lat. gryphus, Gk. grūps).

For PIE pet, rush, fly, compare derivatives pétrā, feather, as Gmc. fethrō (cf O.N. fjöðr, O.E. feðer, M.Du. vedere, Ger. Feder), peto, go toward, seek, as Lat. petere, as in petítiōn, petolánts, petulant, adpeto, strive after, adpettos, strong desire, appetite, kompeto, compete, enpeto, attack, énpetus, impetus, enpetuós, impetuous, repeto, repeat; pétnā, feather, wing, as Lat. penna, pinna, as in diminutive petnkolom, pinnacle; propetiós (in compound with pro-, forward), favorable, gracious, propitious, originally a religious term meaning “falling or rushing forward”, hence “eager,” “well-disposed” said of the gods; also, from alternative root pte-, ptérōn, feather, wing, and ptéruks, wing, as Gk. πτερον, as in compounds ptero- and -pteros, -pteruks; ptílōn, soft feathers, down, plume; ptḗnos, winged, flying; reduplicate pipto, fall, and verbal adjective ptōtós, falling, fallen, and nominal derivatives ptṓtis, fall, ptosis, and ptṓmn, a fall, fallen body, corpse, as in ksunpipto, converge, coincide, from which ksunptōtós, intersecting, and aksunptōtós, not intersecting, asymptote, and also kómptōmn, a happening, symptom of a disease; o-grade pótamos (in compound with –amo-, a Greek suffix), “rushing water”, river; péttrom, feather, leaf, as Skr. pattram.

[122] For PIE gher, grasp, enclose, compare derivatives as verb ghŕdhio, gird, girt, and noun ghrdhs, girdle, girth, as Gmc. gurd- (cf. O.N. gjördh, O.E. gyrdan, gyrdel); suffixed o-grade ghórtos (or Gmc. ghórdhos), enclosure, hence garden, pasture, field, as Gmc. gardaz (cf. Goth. gards, O.N. garðr, O.E. geard, O.Fris. garda, O.H.G. garto, Du. gaard), Lat. hortus, Gk. khortos, O.Ir. gort, Bret. garz, and also, with a wider meaning of house, village, town, city, compare Goth. garþs and O.Ice. gerði, Phryg. -gordum, Gk. κορθίλαι, Alb. garth, -dhi, Toch. kerciye (from ghórdhiom), and (not satemized) O.Ind. gṛhás, Av. gərəđō, Lith. gar̃das, gardinỹs, O.C.S. градъ, Rus. город, -град, Pol. gród, hence Proto-Balto-Slavic gardŏs, suggesting an early borrowing from a centum dialect or maybe an irregular evolution (for satemized Baltic forms, cf. O.Pruss. sardis, Ltv. zardi). Also, prefixed and suffixd zero-grade koghŕtis, enclosure, yard, company of soldiers, multitude, cohort, as Lat. cohors, cohortis, or cors, cortis, hence also loan word kórtis, court, as in kortisía, courtesy, curtsy, or kortítiā, cortege, kortitinos, courtier, (from It. cortigiano) and kortitinā, courtesan; and Greek ghóros, dancing ground, dance, dramatic chorus, as in ghorlis, choral, chorale (for Med.Lat. cantus chorālis, MIE kántos ghorālis), or ghorístā, chorister, etc.

[123] Adjective swādús, sweet, pleasant, is the origin of Gk. ἡδυς, Skr. svādu, Av. x^wāsta, Toch. swār/swāre, Lith. sūdyti, Polish słodki, Gaul. Suadu, O.Ir. sant, Welsh chwant, and even of further suffixed swādwís, delightful, as Lat. suāuis. Also, compare derivatives from PIE root swād-, as swādiós, sweet, as Gmc. swotijaz (cf. Goth. sutis, O.N. sötr, O.S. swoti, O.E. swēte, O.H.G. suozi, M.Du. soete, Eng. sweet, Ger. süß); swādē, advise, urge (<“recommend as good”), as in modern derivatives swsiōn, disswādē, perswādē; also, swdes, pleasure, aedes, as Gk. ἡδος, and further suffixed swdonā, pleasure, as Gk. ἡδονή, giving modern derivatives swādonikós, hedonic, and swādonísmos, hedonism.

[124] PIE root neqt- comes probably from an older verbal root nec, be dark, be night. Common words attested are usually from o-grade nóqts/nóqtis (but compare older Hitt. nekuz, maybe from IE II néqus), as Gmc. nakhts (cf. Goth. nahts, O.N. natt, O.E. niht, neaht, O.H.G. naht, O.Fris., Du., Ger. nacht), Lat. nox (stem noct-), Gk. νυξ, Skr. nakti, Toch. nakcu/nekcīye, Old Prussian naktin, Lith. naktis, Ltv. nakts, O.C.S. nosti, Russ. ночь, Polish noc, O.Ir. innocht, Welsh nos, Alb. natë. Derivatives include nóqtuā, night owl; and suffixed plain verbal root necrós, black, as Lat. niger, as in denecrā, blacken, soil, hence denigrate.

[125] For PIE mreghús, brief, compare zero-grade mrghijós, “short-lasting”, hence pleasant, as Gmc. murgijaz (cf. Goth. gamaurgjan, O.E. myrige, O.H.G. murgi, Eng. merry), or extended mreghwís, as Lat. brevis; compare also Gk. brakhus, Av. mərəzujiti.

[126] Indo-European kan, sing, gives Gmc. khannjo (cf. O.E. hana, O.H.G. henna, M.Du. henne), khan(e)nī (cf. O.E. hen, henn), Lat. canere, frequentative kantā, as Lat. cantāre, as in kanttā, adkántos, accent, enkantā, enchant, enkanttiōn, incantation, enkantiuos, incentive; suffixed kánā, singer; opskan, “one that sings before the augurs”, as Lat. oscen, a singing bird used in divination; suffixed kanmen, song, poem, charm, as Lat. carmen.

[127] Different PIE words for “ship, nave”:

I. For Indo-European náus/nwis, ship, nave (nau- before consonant, nāu- before vowel), possibly from an earlier verbal root nau, swim, compare O.E. nōwend, ON nōr, Lat. nāvis, Gk. ναυς, Skr. nāu, Av. navāza, O.Pers. nāviyā, Arm. nav, Ir. nau, Welsh noe, Alb. anije, Osset. nau. Common derivatives include nāwalis, naval, nāwigā, navigate, nwigiom, ship, (pl. nwigia, ships, from which Eng. navy); from Gk. ναυς, ναύτης, are MIE náutā, sailor, mariner, nautikós, nautical, nautílos, sailor, nautilus, āēronáutā, aeuronaut (see wer, air) aqanáutā, aquanaut (see aqa, water), astronáutā, astronaut (see astér, star), kosmonáutā, cosmonaut (from Gk. kósmos, cosmos).

I.1. The English term “mariner” comes from PIE móris, sea, lake, pond, as Gmc. mariz (cf. Goth. marei, O.N. marr, O.E. mere, O.H.G. marī, M.Du. meer, Ger. Meer), Lat. mare, Skr. maryādā, O.Pruss. mary, Lith. marios, Ltv. mare, O.C.S. morje, Russ. more, Polish morze, Gaul. (Are)morici, O.Ir. muir, Welsh môr, Alb. përmjerr; giving derivatives móriskos, marsh, water-logged land, as Gmc. mariskaz (cf. O.E. mersc, merisc, O.Fr. maresc, mareis, Du. mars, Ger. Marsch); or morinós, marine, moriqoltósā, mariculture, olt(e)rāmorinós, ultramarine, etc.

I.2. For IE áwis (earlier *h₂ewis), bird, compare Lat. avis, Umb. avif, Gk. aetos, Skr. vis, Av. vīš, Arm. hav, Lith. višta, Ltv. vista, Ir. aoi, Welsh hwyad; derivatives include awiariós, aviary, awiqoltósā, aviculture, awiátiōn, aviation, and MIE loan word for aeroplane, awiṓn (cf. Fr. avion, Spa. avión, Pt. avião, Rom.,Slo. avion); áwispeks, augur, auspice (“observer of birds”, see spek, observe).

Possibly from o-grade are ówjom, egg (alsoa alternative form ójjom, both from earlier *h₁óh₂wiom), as Gmc. ajjam (cf. Goth. ada, O.N. egg, O.E. ǣg, O.H.G. ei, Eng. [cockn]ey) Lat. ōuum, Gk. ōion, Pers. xāyah, Kurd. hék, Arm. dzu, O.C.S. ajĭse, Rus. jajco, Ir. ubh, Welsh ŵy, Bret. ui, Alb. ve,vo. From Latin are owjal, oval, ówjolos, ovule, ovolo, or owjásios, ovary; from dim. owjókos, O.Ira. āvyakah, are MIE ‘partial’ loan word owjr or ‘full’ loan word kawjr, caviar, from M.Pers. khāvyar, through Turkish into French caviar.

For “aeroplane”, different dialectal words exist in MIE, as international loan word (from English using Latin words) āwēroplánom, from āwēr+plánom (cf. Lat. aeroplanum, Eng. airplane, Gk. αεροπλάνο, It.,Spa.,Pt. aeroplano, Lith. aeroplanas, Russ. аэроплан, Pol. aeroplan, Alb. aeroplan, even Saami jarplan, Hebrew ăvirōn, etc.), Germanic pleukomāghánā, from pléuko+māghanā (cf. Ger. Flugmaschine, Da. flyvemaskine, flyver, Swe. flygmaskin, Fris. fleanmasine) or plánom (cf. Swe. [flyg]plan, Eng. plane), Balto-Slavic [somo]lékts (m., cf. Lith. lėktuvas, Russ. самолёт, Ukr. літак, Pol. samolot, Cz. letadlo, letoun, Slk. lietadlo, Bulg. самолет, Slo. letalo).

An Indo-European root wer, raise, lift, hold suspended, older *h₂wer, is reconstructed for different Greek derivatives: awero, raise, and awrtériā, windpipe, artery, also metáworos, meteor, “lifted in the air” (from méta-, meta-, and -aworós, lifted), Gk. μετέωρος; wēr, air (from an obscure basic form āwer-), as in āwērialis, aerial, or malā-āwēria, malaria, lit. “bad air” (see Lat. málos, bad); zero-grade áurā, breath, vapor, aura.

For Indo-European pleu, flow, compare metathesized plúo, rain, as Lat. pluere, in pluwiós, rainy, pluvious, pluwialis, pluvial; Greek pléutis, sailing, pleusis; zero-grade suffixed pluos, trough, basin, dissimilated in Greek pyelos; suffixed pléumōn, “floater”, lung, as Lat. pulm (from plumon), Gk. pneumōn (influenced by pneu, “breath”), Skr. kloman, O.Pruss. plauti, Lith. plaučiai, Ltv. plaušas, Russ. pljuče, Serb. pluća, as in pleumonós/pleumonasiós, pulmonary, or pleumonía, pneumonia; o-grade plóutos, wealth, riches (<“overflowing”), as in ploutokratía, plutocracy (see kratos), as Gk. πλουτοκρατία; o-grade lengthened plōwo, flow, as Gmc. flōwan (cf. O.N. floa, O.E. flōwan, O.H.G. flouwen, Du. vloeien), suffixed plṓtus, flowing water, deluge, flood, as Gmc. flōthuz (cf. Goth. fiodus, O.N. floð, O.E. flōd, O.Fris. flod, M.Du. vloet, Ger. Flut); extended pleuko, soar through air, fly, also swim, as Gmc. fleugan (cf. O.N. flügja, O.E. flēogan, O.H.G. fliogan, M.Du. vlieghen, Ger. fliegen), Lith. plaukiu, and pléukā, fly, flying insect, as Gmc. fleugōn (cf. O.S. fleiga, O.N. fluga, O.E. flēoge, M.Du. vlieghe, Ger. Fliege), and also maybe pleuko, flee, take flight, as Gmc. fleukhan (cf. O.N. flöja, O.E. flēon, O.H.G. fliohan, Du. vlieden, Ger. fliehen, although sometimes reconstructed as Gmc. thleukhan, as Goth. þliuhan, then later influenced by this root), causative ploukio, put to flight, as Gmc. flaugjan (cf. O.E. flygan, flegan, Eng. fley), pléukikā, arrow, from Gmc. fleugika (cf. Frankish into O.Fr. flèche, It. freccia, Spa.,Pt. flecha); zero-grade plúktis, flight, as Gmc. flugtiz (cf. O.E. flyht, fluht, Low Ger. flugt, Ger. Flucht); also púglos (dissimilated from plúgos), bird, as Gmc. fuglaz (cf. Gothic fugls, O.E. fugol, O.N. fugl, M.Du. voghel, Ger. vogel, Goth. fugls), also in plúgilos, wing, as Gmc. flugilaz (cf. M.H.G. vlügel, Ger. Flügel); extended pléudo, float, swim, as Gmc. fleutan (cf. O.E. flēotan), and pléutos, fleet, swift, as Gmc. fleutaz (cf. O.N. fljōtr, O.E. fleot), also as zero-grade plud(i)o, float, as Gmc. flotōn (cf. O.E. flotian, Fr. flotter, Spa. flotar, also from same root Lith. plaukti, Du. vloeien),

PIE pneu, breath, is probably an imitative root, which appears in pneuso, sneeze, as Gmc. fneusan (cf. O.N. fnysa, O.E. fnēosan, O.H.G. fnehan, Eng. sneeze), zero-grade pnus(k)o, sneezing, snore, as Gmc. fnus(k)an (affected by rhotacism, cf. O.E. fnora, similar to M.H.G. snarchen, Du. snorken, Ger. schnarchen, Swed. snarka), and variant pneso, snort, gnash one’s teeth, as Gmc. fnesan (cf. O.E. fnǣran, Eng. sneer). Modern Greek derivatives include o-grade pnó(w)iā, -pnoia, breathing, and pno(w)ā, breath, as in eupnoia, eupnea, superpnoia, hyperpnea, supopnoia, hypopnea, etc.; also, pnéumn, breath, wind, spirit, as in pneumo-, pneumnto-.

Also, a Modern Indo-European reconstructed lúptus, air, sky, is the source of Gmc. luftuz (cf. Goth. luftus, O.E. lyft, O.N. lopt, O.H.G. luft, Du. lucht).

For magh, be able, have power, compare Gmc. magan (cf. Goth. magan, O.N. mega, O.E. magan, O.H.G. magan, Ger. mögen, Eng. may, also into V.Lat. exmagāre, MIE [d]eksmaghā, “deprive of power”, frighten, O.Fr. esmaier, Anglo-Norman desmaiier, Eng. dismay, Spa. desmayar), Att.Gk. μῆχος, Dor.Gk. μᾶχος, Skr. magha, Toch. mokats, Arm. mart'ans, Lith. mãgulas, magùs, mė́gstu, mė́gti Ltv. megt, Sla. mogǫ, mogti, (cf. O.C.S. могѫ, мошти, O.Russ. могу, мочи, Russ. мочь, Pol. móc, mogę, Sr.-Cr. могу, моħи, Cz. mohu, můžeš, mосi); mághtis, power, as Gmc. mahtiz (cf. Goth. mahts, O.N. mattr, O.E. miht, meaht, O.Fris., M.Du. macht, Ger. Macht, Eng. might), mághinom, power, strenght, as Gmc. maginam (cf. O.E. mægen, O.N. megenn, Eng. main); suffixed lengthened māghánā, machine, device, “that which enables”, from Att.Gk. μηχανή, Dor.Gk. μαχανά̄, māghanikós, mechanic, and māghanísmos, mechanism, from Mod.Lat. mēchanismus, or mghano-; suffixed mághus, magus, member of a priestly caste, magician, (from “mighty one”), as O.Pers. maguš (said by ancient historians to have been originally the name of a Median tribe, borrowed into Gk. μάγος and then into Lat. magus), as in maghikós, magic, or mághikā, sorcery, magic, (as O.Fr. magique, from Lat. magice, from Gk. magikē, fem. of magikos) or Mághes, Magi.

I.3. PIE (a)stḗr, earlier *h₂ster, is found in Gk. ἀστήρ, asterískos, asterisk, asterowéidā, asteorid (in compound with Gk. -ο-ειδης, IE -o-weidā, from wéidos, shape, form) as Gk. ἀστεροειδής, astro-, as Gk. ἀστρο-, astrālis, astral, ástrom, as Gk. astron, into Lat. astrum, as in disástrom, disaster; suffixed stersā, Gmc. sterzōn (cf. Goth. stairno, O.S. sterro, O.N. stjarna, O.E. steorra, O.Fris. stera, O.H.G. sterro, Du. ster, Ger. Stern), stérlā, as Lat. stēlla, as in sterlaris, stellar, komsterlátiōn, constellation. Also, compare Skr. tāras, stṛbhis, Pers. setāre, Kurd. stérk/estére, Oss. sthaly, Toch. śre/śćirye, Arm. astł, Welsh seren, Kam. ṛâšto, Hitt. šittar.

II. Indo-European bheid, split, as Gmc. bītan (cf. Goth. beitan, O.E. bītan, O.Fris. bita, M.Du. biten, Ger. beissen), zero-grade bhídis, bite, sting, as Gmc. bitiz (cf. O.E. bite), or bhídā, bit, a pice bitten off, as Gmc. bitōn (cf. O.N. biti, O.E. bite, bita), bhidhrós, bitter, sharp, as O.E. bit(t)er, bhoidhio, harass or hunt with dogs, as Eng. bait or abet , Gmc. baitjan (cf. O.N. beita, O.Fr. beter), bhóids, boat (< “dugout canoe” or “split planking”), as Gmc. bait- (cf. O.E. bāt, Ger., Du. boot, Da.,Nor.,Swe. båt, also O.Fr. batel, Fr. bateau, It. battello, Spa. bote, Sco. bàta, Welsh bad, Hi. pot, even Estonian paat, Japanese bōto, etc.); also nasalized zero-grade bhindo, split, as Lat. findere, with p.part. bhindtós, as loan word bhisós, giving bhísiōn, fission, bhisṓsā, fissure.

IV. Germanic “ship” is reconstructed as MIE skibs, ship, boat, from Gmc. skip- (cf. O.N., O.S., Goth. skip, O.E., M.Du. scip, O.H.G. skif, Dan. skib, Swed. skepp, Du. schip, Ger. Schiff, Yid. shif), possibly a zero-grade extended derivative from skéi (in turn derived from PIE sek), cut, split, giving suffixed skéinā, shin, shinbone, (as O.E. scinu), or ekskéinā, backbone, chine, as O.Fr. eschine; from Lat. scire, “know” (from “separate one thing from nother, discern”), are MIE skeiéntia, knowledge, learning, science, komskeiéntiā, conscience, inchoative skeisko, vote for, giving skéitom, decree, from which pledhuweskéitom, plebiscite (see plēdhūs, people); skíjenā, knife, as O.Ir. scīan, Eng. skean; skeido, separate, defecate, as Gmc. skītan (cf. O.N. skīta, O.E. scītan, O.H.G. skīzzan, Eng. shīt); skidio, split, as (aspirated) Gk. σχιζειν, found in skísmn, schism, skidio-, schizo-; nasalized zero-grade skindo, split, as Lat. scindere, p.part. skindtós, or as variant skisós, in skísiōn, scission, also in ekskindo, exscind, preskindo, prescind, reskindo, rescind; extended skeito, separate, as Gmc. skaithan (cf. Goth. skaidan, O.S. skethan, O.E. scēadan, scadan, O.Fris. sketha, M.Du. sceiden, O.H.G. sceidan, Du. scheiden, Ger. scheiden), skéitom, log, stick, snowshoe, hence ski, as O.N. skīdh, from Gmc. skīdam, also as MIE loan word skī(t); skóitom, shield (< “board”), as Lat. scūtum; extended skeipo, slice, split, as Gmc. skīfan, as in O.N. skīfa, M.E. sheve, M.L.G. schever, Eng. sheave, skive, shiver.

V. For Slavic “lod-“ (cf. O.C.S. алъдии, ладии, O.Russ. лодья, лодъка, Ukr. лодь, Bel. ло́дка, Pol. ɫódź, Cz. lоd᾽, lodí, Sr.-Cr. lađa, Slo. ládja, Bul. ла́дя) a common Slavic oldī, MIE óldīs, is reconstructed (cf. Lith. aldijà, eldijà), also attested as O.E. еаldоđ, “alviolum”, Swe. ålla, Da. ааldе, olde, Nor. оldа, dial. olle.

VII. For Persian کشتی (kešti), “ship”, found in Hindustani kašti (cf. Hi. कश्ती, Ur. کشتی), from a source akin to Indo-Iranian kath, “wood”, MIE kadh, kádhtis, possibly non-IE, but maybe a secondary root derived from an earlier *ka-, related to forest, wood; compare with Indo-European roots kat- (“hut”, cf. Lat. casa, Av. kata-, Pers. kad, v.s.), kaito- (“forest”, v.i) and kald- (“wood”, as O.C.S. klada “beam, timber”, Gk. klados “twig”, O.Ir. caill “wood”, and zero-grade kĺdom, Gmc. khultam, cf. O.E.,O.Fris., M.Du. holt, O.H.G. holz)

Indo-European root kaito-, forest, uncultivated land, also wood, is attested (in Celtic and Germanic) as Gaul. kaito-briga (Lat. cēto-briga), O.Welsh coit, O.Cor. cuit, Bret. coet, and also from kaitis, Gmc. khaithis (cf. Goth. haiÞi, O.N. heiðr, O.E. hǣð, O.H.G. heida, Eng. heath, Ger. heide), and loan-translated Germanic káitinos, heathen, as Gmc. khaithinaz (cf. Goth. haiÞnō, O.N. heiðinn, O.E. hǣðen, O.H.G. heidan), from Lat. paganus, from Lat. pagus, “land”.

Proto-Indo-European pag, also pak, fasten, gives pakio, join, fit, as gmc. fōgjan (cf. O.E. fēgan, Eng. fay), nasalized panko, seize, as Gmc. panhan (cf. O.E. fang, feng, Du. vangen, O.H.G. fangen), and pango, fasten, as Lat. pangere, as in enpango, impinge, or loan words kompangtós, compact, enpángtos, impact; pāks, peace (from “a binding together by treaty or agreement”), as Lat. pax, in pakidhakā, pacify, pakidhakós, pacific; pakisko, agree, as Lat. pacīscī, as paktós, agreed, páktom, pact; pákslos, stake (fixed in the ground), pole, as Lat. pālus, in MIE pakslikiā, palisade (from V.Lat. pālīcea, into Prov. palissada, Fr. palissade, Spa. palizada), enpakslā, impale, tripaksliā, work hard (from tripáksliom, instrument of torture, from tri-paksli, having three stakes, Lat. tripaliāre, Fr. travailler, It. travagliare, Spa. trabajar, Pt. trabalhar, Cat. treballar, Filipino trabaho, etc., also Eng. travel, from Fr. travail); loan pákslā, spade, as Lat. pāla; lengthened-grade pgos, “boundary staked out on the ground,” district, village, country (cf. Fr. pays, It. paese, Pt.,Spa.,Cat. país, Rom. pajais), as in pāgānós, country-dweller, civilian, then extended as pagan, and pāgénts, inhabitant of a district (as Lat. pāgēnsis, M.Fr. paisant, Eng. peasant, Spa. paisano, Cat. pagès, etc.), pginā, “trellis to which a row of vines is fixed”, hence (by metaphor) column of writing, page, as Lat. pāgina; prōpāgā, propagate (from “fix before”, with prō-, before); pagno, fasten, coagulate, as in pāktós, coagulated, Gk. πηκτός, or pāktinā, pectin, and págos, mass, hill.

IX. Persian qayeq and Greek καΐκι, “boat”, are from a source akin to French caique, It. caicco, i.e. probably Turkish kayik, O.Turkish qayghug, maybe from an old Turkic (or otherwise old Asian) word, possibly related to American Indian kayak, and American Spanish cayuco. Hence, usable as borrowings in MIE, maybe kájiks, boat, caique, kájaks, kayak.

A common Iberian word for “bat” is MIE mūskáikos, “blind mouse”, (cf. Gl.-Pt. morcego, Spa. murciégalo, Cat. muricec), from PIE mūs, mouse, Gmc. mūs (cf. O.N.,O.Fris., M.Du., O.E., O.H.G. mūs, Eng. mouse, Ger. Maus), Lat. mūs, Gk. mūs, Skr. mūṣ, Av. mus, Pers. muš, Arm. muk/mug, Lith. musė, O.C.S. mysu, Russ. мышь, Polish mysz, Alb. mi, Kamviri musa. Compare for MIE pléukomūs, léktomūs, “flying mouse”, as Da. flagermus, Nor. flaggermus, Swe. fladdermus, Fae. flogmús, Du. vleermuis, Ger. Fledermaus, Russ. летучая мышь, Bel. лятучая мыш,; cf. also Sr.-Cr. slepi miš, šišmiš, etc. Also, compare words related to night, as Gk. νυχτερίδα, Lat. uespertilio.

X. Persian jahāz, also found in Hindustani (cf. Hi. जहाज, जहाज़, Ur. جهاز), is of Arabic origin.

[128] Indo-European words for “war, battle”:

I. A common PIE word seems to have been kóros, war, strife, as O.Pers. kāra, Pers. kārzār, Kurd. šer, O.Pruss. kargis, Lith. karas, Ltv. kaŗš, Russ. кара, Pol. kara; with derivatives kórios, armed force, war-band, host, army, troop, as Gmc. kharjaz (cf. Goth. harjis, O.N. herr, O.E. here, O.H.G. heri, Eng. heriot, Ger. Heer), Lith. karias, Gaul. [Tri]corii,O.Ir. cuire; koriános, ruler, leader, commander, as Gk. koiranos; koriobhérghos, “army hill”, hill-fort, later shelter, lodging, army quarters, as Gmc. kharjabergaz (cf. O.N. herbergi, O.E. herebeorg, Du. herberg, Ger. Herberge, Swedish härbärge; meaning shift in Eng. harbor, into Welsh harbwr, see bhergh, v.i. for Germanic haven, “harbour”); koriowóldhos, army-commander, herald (woldho, rule, power, see wal), as Gmc. kharja-waldaz (cf. Anglo-Norman herald, Ger. [Wappen]herold, Fr. héraut, It. araldo, Spa. heraldo, Pt. arauto, etc.), korionéstom, “army provisions”, harness (from néstom, food for a journey, see nes), as Gmc. kharja-nestam (cf. O.Fr. harneis, Eng. harness); denominative verb korio, harry, ravage, plunder, raid, as Gmc. kharjōn (cf. O.E. hergian); korikrénghos, “host-ring”, assembly, public square (krénghos, ring, see sker), as Gmc. kharihring (cf. O.It. aringo, arringa, Prov. arenga, Eng. harangue, Spa. arenga, etc.).

I.1. PIE wal, be strong, is found as suffixed stative walē, Lat. ualēre, as in walós, strong, wálōr, strength, komtrāwálōr, countervail, walénts, brave, valiant, waléntiā, valence, ambhiwaléntiā, ambivalence, walidós, valid, nwalidós, invalid, adwális, avail (from Fr. aval), komwalesko, convalesce, ekwaluā, evaluate, prewalē, prevail, walideiko, say farewell, (see deik, show), walidéiktiōn, valediction, aiqiwalē, have equal force (as Lat. aequi-, Eng. equi-), aiqiwalénts, equivalent; extended o-grade woldho, rule, govern, as Gmc. waldan (cf. O.S., Goth. waldan, O.N. valda, O.E. wealdan, wieldan, O.Fris. walda, O.H.G. waltan, Ger. walten, Eng. wield), and suffixed extended wóldtis, rule, as Sla. volstь (cf. O.C.S. vlasti, Russ. волость, власть), as in opwóldtis, oblast, from Sla. ob- volstь (cf. O.C.S. область, O.Russ. оболость, Cz. oblast, etc.).

PIE verbal root deik, show, pronounce solemnly, gives Lat. dīcere, say, tell, as in borrowings déiktiōn, diction, deiktā, dictate, deikttos, dictate, déiktom, dictum, addeiktós, addict, dwenideiko (see dwenós, good), bless, dwenidéiktiōn, benediction, komdéikiōn, condition, komtrādeiko, contradict, ekdeiko, edict, enterdéiktom, interdict, jowosesdeikós, juridicial, (Lat. iūs, iūris, corresponds to MIE jówos, jówóses, see rhotacism) jowosesdéiktion, jurisdiction, malideiko, maledict, predeiko, predict, wērideiko, “tell the truth” (see wērós, true), wērideikós, veridical, wēridéiktos, verdict; suffixed zero-grade verb dikā, proclaim, Lat. dicāre, as in apdikā, abdicate, dedikā, dedicate, predikā, predicate; agential sufix -dik-, in éndiks, index, indicator, forefinger, endikā, indicate, also jówosdiks, judge, Lat. iūdex, jowosdikialis, judicial, prejowosdikā, prejudge, prejowosdíkiom, prejudice; wíndiks, surety, claimant, avenger, as Lat. uindex, as in windikā, vindicate, avenge, take revenge; deikno, show, déikmn, sample, pattern, as in deíktis/deíksis, deixis, deiktikós, deictic, paradéikmn, paradigm, apodeíktis, proof, demonstration, policy (cf. Gk. ἀπόδειξις, into Lat. apodixa, “receipt”, then It. polizza, into Fr. police, Spa. póliza, etc.); zero-grade díkā, justice, right, court case, as in ksundikós, syndic, as Gk. σύνδικος, dheodikā, theodicy, and diko, throw (from “direct an object”), as in di(k)skos, disk, Gk. δίσκος; o-grade doikuā, toe (“pointer”), as Gmc. taihwo (cf. O.N. ta, O.E. tahe, O.Fris. tane, O.H.G. zecha, M.Du. te). Variant form deig- gives o-grade doigio, show, instruct, as Gmc. taikjan (cf. Goth. ga-teihan, O.E. tǣcan, O.H.G. zihan, Eng. teach, Ger. zeihen), doignom, mark, sign, token, as Gmc. taiknam (cf. Goth. taikns, O.S. tekan, O.N. teikn, O.E. tācen, tācn, O.H.G. zeihhan, O.Fris., M.Du. teken, Du. teken, Ger. zeichen), zero-grade dígitos, finger (from “pointer, indicator”).

Indo-European wērós (earlier *werh₁-o-), true, trustworthy, and wḗrā, faithfulness, faith, hence pledge, agreement, promise, treaty, gives Gmc. wēro- (cf. O.E. wǣr, O.Du., O.H.G. war, Du. waar, Ger. wahr), Lat. verax (cf. O.Fr. verai, Anglo-Fr. verrai, O.E. verray, Eng. very), O.C.S. вѣра, Russ. вера, Pol. wiara, Bul. вяра, Welsh gwyr, O.Ir. fir. Common derivatives include wḗraks, truthful, veracious, wḗritā, verity, wēridhakā, verify, etc.

I.2. PIE nes, turn out well, rest, return safely home, gives O.Gk. nehomai (*ninsomai), O.Ind. nasate, Toch. nas-/nes-; also, suffixed néstom, food for a journey, as Gmc. nestam (cf. O.E., O.H.G., O.N. nest), as in korionéstom, harness (for kóros, war, v.s.); o-grade nóstos, a return home, as Gk. νόστος, found in common nostalgía, in compound with Gk. borrowing -algía, Gk. αλγία, from algos, pain, Gk. ἄλγος.

I.3. PIE (s)ker, turn, bend, gives Germanic nasalized extended skreng, wither, shrivel up, as Gmc. skrink, kréngā, a crease, fold, (cf. O.N. hrukka, Eng. ruck), and krengio, wrinkle (cf. Frank. hrukjan, O.Fr. fronce, Eng. flounce), as Gmc. khrunk-; nasalized extended krénghos, circle, something curved, ring, as Gmc. khringaz, (cf. O.E. hring, O.N. hringr, O.Fris. hring, M.Du. rinc, Ger. Ring), also found in O.Fr. renc, reng, “line, row”, which gives loan words krenghs, rank, range, adkrengho, arrange; extended kreukios, back, as Gmc. khrugjaz (cf. O.N. hryggr, O.E. hrycg, O.Fris. hregg, O.S. hruggi, O.H.G. hrukki, Du. rug, Eng. ridge, Ger. Rücken); suffixed variant kurwós, bent, curved, as Lat. curuus, as in kúrwā, curve, kurwatós, curved, or kurwatósā, curvature; suffixed extended krísnis, hair, as Lat. crīnis, krístā, tuft, crest, as Lat. crista, kripsós, curly, as metathesized Lat. crispus, hence MIE krispós, crisp; expressive krisā, wiggle the hips during copulation, as Lat. crīsāre, in krísom, crissum; reduplicated kíkros, ring, also kírkos, as in kírkos, circus, kírkolos, circle, kirkom-, circum-, kirkā, go around, hence search, rekirkā, research; suffixed o-grade korōnós, curved, as in korṓnā, anything curved, kind of crown; variant kurtós, convex, as in kurtósis.

Another similar PIE root is (s)ker, cut, also “shear, separate” as in Gmc. skeran (cf. O.E. scieran, sceran, Low Ger.,Du. scheren, Eng. shear, sheer), Gk. keirein, Skr. krnati, krntati, Lith. skiriu, O.Ir. scaraim, Welsh ysgar, ysgyr, Hitt. karsh; skéros, share, portion, division, as Gmc. skeraz (cf. O.N. skör, O.E. scēar, scearu, scaru, O.H.G. scara , Ger. Schar); skḗrā, skḗres, scissors, as O.E. scēar, in skḗrbherghs, “sword protector”, scabbard, as Gmc. skerberg (cf. O.H.G. scarberc, O.Fr escauberc, see bhergh); skŕā, notch, tally, score, from Gmc. skuro (cf. O.N. skor, O.E. scoru); skóriom, low reef (“something cut off”), as Gmc. skarjam (cf. O.N sker, Eng. scar, skerry), skórpos, diagonally-cut end of a board, as Gmc. skarfaz (cf. O.N. skarfr, Eng. scarf), suffixed o-grade skórdos, cut, notch, as Gmc. skardaz (cf. O.E. sceard, Eng. shard); skrdós, short, and skŕdos, skirt, shirt (“cut piece”), as Gmc. skurtaz (cf. O.N. skyrta, Swed. skjorta, O.E. scort, sceort; scyrte, M.Du. scorte, M.H.G. schurz, Du. schort, Ger. Schurz); extended skermo, protect, as Gmc. skirman (cf. O.H.G. skirmen, O.Fr. eskermir), as in MIE skérmā, skirmish (cf. Eng. skirmish, Du. schermutseling, Swe. skärmytsling, O.It. scaramuccia, Spa. escaramuza, etc.), skérmos, shield; variant form kórōn, flesh, as Lat. caro (stem carn-), as in koronalis, carnal, koronátiōn, carnation, koroneslechális, carnival, (cf. O.It. carnevale, haplology from Lat. carneleuare) also MIE loan karnichális, koroniuorós, carnivorous; kóriom, leather (from “piece of hide”), as Lat. corium; krtós, short, as Lat. curtus; Greek kórmos, trimmed tree trunk, kóris, bedbug (from “cutter”); skŕā, shore, as Gmc. skurō (cf. O.E. scora, M.L.G. schor, M.Du. scorre); kórteks, bark (“that which can be cut off”); kértsnā, meal (“portion of food), as Lat. cēna; skerbhós, cutting, sharp, as Gmc. skarpaz (cf. Goth. skarp-, O.S. scarp, O.N. skarpr, O.E. scearp, O.Fris. skerp, Du. scherp, Ger. scharf), skróbā, “pieces”, remains, as Gmc. skrapo, skróbho, scrape, as Gmc. skraban, skróbis, trench, dith, as Lat. scrobis, or skrṓbhā, a sow (from “rooter, digger”), as Lat. scrōfa; extended suffixed epikrsiós, at an angle, slanted, “biased”, as Gk. epikarsios (cf. Fr. biais, Eng. bias).

I.4. Germanic “haven” comes from IE kápnā, harbour, perhaps “place that holds ships”, from P.Gmc. *khafnō (cf. O.N. hofn, O.E. hæfen, M.L.G. havene, Ger. Hafen, also O.N. haf, O.E. hæf, “sea”), from PIE kap, grasp (compare with ghabh) cf. Skr. kapati, Gk. kaptein, Ltv. kampiu, O.Ir. cacht, Welsh caeth. Common derivatives include káptiom, handle, as Gmc. khaftjam (cf. O.E. hæft, O.H.G. hefti, Du. hecht, Eng. haft, Ger. Heft); basic form kap, have, hold, as Gmc. khabb- (cf. Goth. haban, O.N. hafa, O.S. hebbjan, O.E. habban, O.Fris. habba, Eng. have, Ger. haben); kapigós, “containing something”, having weight, heavy, as Gmc. khafigaz (cf. cf. O.N. hebig, O.E. hefig); kápokos, hawk, as Gmc. khabukaz (cf. O.N. haukr, O.E. h[e]afoc, M.Du. havik, Ger. Habicht, compare with Russ. kobec); -kaps, “taker”, as Lat. -ceps; kapio, take, seize, catch, lift, as Gmc. hafjan (cf. Goth. hafjan, O.N. hefja, O.E. hebban, Du. heffen, Ger. heben), Lat. capere, as in kapáks, capable, capacious, káptiōn, caption, kaptiuā, captivate, kaptiuós, captive, kaptós, captive, kaptṓr, captor, kaptorā, capture, antikapio, anticipate, komkapio, conceive, dekapio, deceive, ekskapio, except, enkapio, incept, enterkapio, intercept, móineskaps, citizen, moineskápiom, city, municipality, opkapā, occupy, partikapā, participate, perkapio, cerceive, rekapio, receive, recover, recuperate, supkaptibhilis, susceptible; variant Greek kṓpā, oar, handle.

PIE ghabh, also ghebh, give or receive, has derivatives as Gmc. geban (cf. Goth. giban, O.N. gefa,O.E. giefan, O.H.G. geban, Eng. give, Ger. geben), Lat. habēre, Oscan hafíar, Umbrian habe, Skr. gabhasti, Lith. gabana, Ltv. gabana, O.C.S. gobino, Gaul. gabi, O.Ir. gaibid, Welsh gafael, Alb. grabit/grabis. Common derivatives include perghebho, give away, give up, leave off, remit, as Gmc. fargeban (cf. Eng. forgive, Du. vergeven, Ger. vergeben); ghébhtis, something given (or received), gift, as Gmc. giftiz (cf. O.N. gipt, gift, O.Fris. jefte, M.Du. ghifte, Ger. Mitgift), ghóbholom, something paid (or received), tribute, tax, debt, as Gmc. gabulam (cf. O.E. gafol, M.H.G. gaffel, Eng. gavel, Ger. dial. gaffel); ghabhē, hold, possess, have, handle, and ghabitā, dwell, as Lat. habēre, habitāre, in ghabhilis, habile, able, ghábitos, habit, ghabhitābhilis, habitable, ghabhitánts, habitant, ghábhitā, habitat, eksghabhē, exhibit, enghabē, inhibit, proghabē, prohibit; deghabhe, owe, as Lat. debere, as in deghabitós, due, deghábhitom, debit, deghábita (n.pl), debt,

I.5. For PIE bhergh, hide, protect, compare Gmc. bergan (cf. Goth. bairgan, O.N. bjarga, O.H.G. bergan, Ger. bergen), OCS brĕgą, Russ. bereč', as in zero-grade bhŕghio, bury, Gmc. burgjan (cf. O.E. byrgan, Eng. bury).

Related PIE bhergh, high, with derivatives referring to hills and hill-forts, gives Lat. fortis, Skr. barhayati, Av. bərəzant, Pers. burj, Thrac. bergas, Illyr. Berginium, Toch. pärk/pärk, Arm. bardzut'iun, Russ. bereg, Gaul. Bergusia, O.Ir. brí, Welsh bre, bera, Alb. burg; Hitt. parku, Lyc. prije;pruwa, A.Mac. Berga. Common MIE derivatives include borrowing isobherghs, iceberg (for MIE loan iso-, Gmc. isa-, “ice”, cf. O.N. iss, O.E. is, O.Fris. is, Du. ijs, Ger. Eis), zero-grade bhrghs, hill-fort, castle, hence fortified town, city, as Gmc. burgs (cf. Goth. baurgs, O.N. borg, O.E. burg, burh, byrig, O.H.G. berg, Eng. borough, Ger. Burg, into Lat. burgus, O.Fr. burg, O.Spa. burgo, etc.), bhrghwórōn, “city protector”, townsman, as Gmc. burg-warōn (see wer, cf. O.H.G. burgari, Eng. burgher); suffixed zero-grade bhrghtís, strong, bhŕghtiā, force, as Lat. fortis, fortia (some relate it to dher), found in ekbhŕghtis, effort, enbhrghtiā, enforce, bhrghtidhakā, fortify, reenbhrghtiā, reinforce, etc.

Proto-Indo-European root gel-, cold, gives Lat. gelū, Oscan gelan, Lith. gelmenis, Gk. gelandron; extended adjective goldós gives Gmc. kaldaz (cf. Goth. kalds, O.N. kaldr, O.E. cald, ceald, O.H.G. kalt), O.C.S. hlad, Pol. chłód.

PIE dher, hold firmly, support, gives dhermós, firm, strong, as Lat. firmus, in addhermā, affirm, komdhermā, confirm, ndhermós, infirm, ill, ndhermāsía, infirmary; suffixed zero-grade dhrónos, seat, throne (from “support”); suffixed dhérmn, statute, law, as Skr. dharma (“that which is established firmly”); suffixed dhérenā, a holding firm, Prakrit dharana; dhóros, holding, as Ira. dāra-, Pers. -dār.

Indo-European wer, cover, gives wériā, defence, protection, as Gmc. werjōn (cf. Goth. warjan, O.N. ver, O.E. wer, O.Fris., M.Du. were, O.H.G. wari, Eng. weir, Du. weer, Ger. Wehr); compound apwerio, open, uncover, (ap-, off, away, see apo), as Lat. aperīre, as in apwertós, opened, overt, apwertósā, aperture, overture; opwerio, cover (op-, over, see epi), as Lat. operire, as in koopwerio, cover; wḗrtros, enclosure, as Skr. vatah; o-grade wornio, take heed, warn, as Gmc. warnōn (cf. O.E. warenian, O.N. varna, O.H.G. warnon, Eng. warn, Ger. warnen), in worónts, warrant, authorization, (cf. O.N.Fr. warant, O.Fr. garant), worontía, warranty, guaranty (cf. O.N.Fr. warantir, Fr. garantie), wóro, guard, protect (cf. O.Fr. garer, guerrer), in worótikom, garage, wório, defend, protect (cf. O.Fr. guarir), wórisōn, garrison, wórnio, to equip (cf. O.Fr. guarnir).

Derivatives of PIE apo, or ap-, off, away, are Gmc. af- (cf. Goth.,O.N. af, O.E. of, æf, O.Fris. af, of, O.H.G. ab, aba, Eng. of, off, Du. af, Ger. ab), Lat. ab, Gk. apo, I.-I. apa, Bl.-Sl. po. Common MIE words include apton, behind, as Gmc. aftan (cf. O.E. æftan, Eng. aft, abaft), aptero, after, behind, as Gmc. aftar (cf. O.E. æfter), apuko, turned backward, as Gmc. afugo (cf. O.N. öfugr, O.E. awk); variant po-, on, in, as Balto-Slavic po, Latin extended post, also in verb pōno (from Lat. pōnere, from po+sinere, “leave, let”, of obscure origin), p.part, positós, both giving common MIE pógrom, posteriós, postmŕtim, (see PIE mer), postmortem, positósā, posture, posítiōn, adpōne, adposítiōn, kompōno, compose, komposítiōn, komtrāpositós, depōno, depositós, dispōno, dispose, ekspōno, expose, enpōno, impose, enpositós, imposed, enpósitom, impost, enterpōno, interpose, oppōno, oppose, oppōsítiōn, suppōno, suppose, supposítiōn, supposition, transpōno, transpose, etc.

For PIE mer, rub away, harm, compare mórā, goblin, incubus, as Gmc. marōn (cf. O.E. mare, mære, Eng. [night]mare), O.Ir. Morri[gain], Bulg., Serb., Pol. mora, Fr. [cauche]mar; mŕo, waste away, wither, as in mrasmós, marasmus, as Gk. μαρασμός; mrtsiom, mortar (from “ground down”) as Lat. mortāriom; extended mordē, bite, as Lat. mordēre, as in mordakiós, mordacious, remordē, remorse, etc.; suffixed mórbhos, disease, as Lat. morbus, in morbhidós, morbid. Probably the same root is mer, die (cf. Hitt. mer), with derivatives mŕtrom, murder, as Gmc. murthra- (cf. Goth maurþr, O.N. morð, O.E. morðor, O.Fris. morth, M.Du. moort, Ger. Mord, also in M.Lat. murdrum, O.Fr. mordre), mŕtis, death, as Lat. mors, O.Ind. mṛtiṣ, Lith. mir̃tìs, Ltv. mir̃tе, Sla. mьrtь (cf. O.C.S. [съ]мрьть, sъ from svo-, reflexive swe-, Russ. смерть, O.Slo. smȓti, Pol. śmierć, Cz. smrt, etc.), with common Latin derivatives mrtalis, mortal, mrtidhakā, mortify, admortisā, amortize; mŕio, die, with irregular p.part. mrtuós, death, as Lat. morire, mortuus, in mrtuasiós, mortuary, mribhundós, moribund, mrtwótikom, mortgage (from O.Fr. mort and gage, “pledge”, from Frank. wadja, “pledge”, IE wotio); common adjectives mrtós, death, as Gk. βροτος, nmrtós [n̥-mr̥-‘tos], inmortal, undying, (lit. un-death), hence also divine, as Lat. inmortalis, Gk. ἄμβροτος, Skr. amrtam; mortiós, mortal, as O.Pers. martiya, into Gk. manticore. Other IE derivatives include Skr. marati, Av. miryeite, O.Pers. amariyata, Pers. mordan, Kurd. mirin, Arm. meṙnil, Lith. mirti, Ltv. mirt, O.C.S. mrĭtvŭ, Russ. meret', Pol. mord, umrzeć, Gaul. marvos, O.Ir. marb, Welsh marw, Kamviri mṛe, Osset. maryn.

Common MIE loan assassin(ós) via Fr. and It., from Arabic hashishiyyin “hashish-users” pl. of hashishiyy, from hashish (Arabic hashish “powdered hemp”, lit. “dry herb”, from hashsha “it became dry, it dried up”). A fanatical Ismaili Muslim sect of the time of the Crusades, with a reputation for murdering opposing leaders after intoxicating themselves by eating hashish. The pl. suffix -in was mistaken in Europe for part of the word (cf. Bedouin).

II. Indo-European root wers, confuse, mix up, (compare with IE ers), gives common wérsos, confusion, and loan word fem. MIE wérsā /wérrā (see rhotacism), both from Gmc. werzaz (cf. O.S. werran, O.H.G. werran, Ger. verwirren; Eng. war is from O.E. wyrre, werre, from O.N.Fr. were, from Frank. werra, as O.H.G. werra, strife, borrowed in Fr. guerre, It.,Spa.,Pt,Cat. guerra); comparative wersisós, worse, and superlative wersistós, worst, as Gmc. wersizōn, wersistaz (cf. Goth. wairsiza, O.S. wirs, wirsista, O.N. verri, verstr, O.E. wyrsa, wyrsta, O.Fris. wirra, wersta, O.H.G. wirsiro, wirsisto); wŕstis, sausage (from “mixture”), as Gmc. wurstiz (cf. O.H.G. wurst)

PIE ers, be in motion, gives variant rēs, rushing, race, as Gmc. rēsan (cf. O.N. rás, O.E. ræs, M.Du. rasen, Ger. rasen); suffixed ersā, wander, Lat. errāre, as in ersatikós, erratic, ersátom, errata, ersaniós, erroneous, ersṓr, error, apersátiōn, aberration; zero-grade ŕsis, poet, seer, Skr. rsiḥ.

III. Indo-European wen, strive after, wish, desire, be satisfied, is the source for wóinos, soldier, and wóinā, war, as Sla. voin’ (O.C.S., O.Russ. воинъ, Ukr. воïн, Sr.-Cr., Slo.,Bul. vojnik, Cz.,Slk. vojin) and vojna; with similar meanings of hunt, chase, pursue, cf. O.N. veiðr, O.E. waþ, O.H.G. weida, Lat. venāri, Gk. ἴεμαι, O.Ind. vēti, Av. vayeiti, Lith. vejù, výti, O.Ir. fíad. Other IE derivatives include wénos, desire, as Skr. vanas; wénuo, win, Gmc. winn(w)an (cf. f. Goth. gawinnen, O.S. winnan, O.N. vinna, O.E. winnan, O.Fris. winna, O.H.G. winnan, Du. winnen), suffixed zero-grade wńiā, pleasure, joy, as Gmc. wunjō (cf. O.E. wen, wynn, Ger.Wonne); stative wńē, be content, rejoice, extended as be accustomed to, dwell, as Gmc. wunēn (cf. O.E. wunian, O.S. wunon, O.Fris. wonia, O.H.G. wonen, Eng. wont); suffixed causative o-grade wóneio, accustom, train, wean, as Gmc. wanjan (cf. O.N. venja, O.E. wenian, Du. vennen, O.H.G. giwennan, Ger. gewöhnen); wḗnis, hope, and verb wēnio, expect, imagine, think, as Gmc. wēniz and wēnjan (cf. Goth. wenjan, O.S. wanian, O.N. væna, O.E. wenan, O.Fris. wena, O.H.G. wanen, Ger. wähnen, Eng. ween); suffixed zero-grade wńsko, desire, wish, wńskos, wish, as Gmc. wunskan, wunskaz (cf. O.N. æskja, O.E. wyscan, M.Du. wonscen, O.H.G. wunsken); wénes, love, giving wenesā, worship, venerate, wenesiós, venereal, etc., with rhotacism as Lat. uenus, ueneris; wenésnom, poison (originally love poison), as Lat. uenēnum, wéniā, favor, forgiveness, Lat. uenia; wenā, hunt, from Lat. uēnārī; wénom, forest, as Skr. vanam.

IV. Indo-European cer- (or *gerh₂), heavy, gives; crús, heavy, venerable, as Goth. kaurus, Gk. βαρύς, Skr. guruh, cruspháirā, barysphere (from Gk. spháirā, sphere), crútonos, baritone, and extended crawís (originally [g_wr̥-a-u̯is]) heavy, weighty, grave, as Lat. gravis, cráwitā, gravity, crawā, burden, adcrawā, aggravate, etc.; cŕes, weight, heaviness, as Gk. βάρος, as in īsocres, isobar (from Gk. īsós, equal); udcri (see ud); crūtós, heavy, unwieldy, dull, stupid, brutish, as Lat. brūtus; crgos, strenght, vigor, crgā, strife, as in crīgátā, brigade, found in Celt. brīgo (cf. Prov. briu, Spa. brío), Gmc. krīg (cf. O.H.G. krēg, chrēg, M.H.G. kriec, Sca. krig, Ger. Krieg), Cel. brīgā (cf. O.Ita. briga, Fr. brigade); cérnā, millstone, as Gmc. kwernōn (Goth. quirnus, O.N. kvern, O.E. cweorn, O.Fris. quern, O.H.G. quirn, Eng. quern, Ger. Querne), Skr. grava, Arm. erkan, O.Pruss. girnoywis, Lith. girna, girnos, Ltv. dzirnus, O.C.S. zrunuvi, Russ. žërnov, Pol. żarno, O.Ir. braó, Welsh brevan.

V. Indo-European dwénelom, war, also duel (O.Lat. duellum, Lat. bellum), is cognate with O.Ind. dunoti, duta-, O.Gk. du, duero, Alb. un, from a PIE verbal root du meaning torment, pain; common Latin loans include dweneligeránts, belligerent (from Lat. dweneligerā, make war, from Lat. gerere, “wage”), kástos dwéneli, casus belli (see kad).

For PIE kad, fall, befall, also die, compare Lat. cadere, O.Ind. sad, Arm. chacnum, M.Ir. casar, Welsh cesair, Corn. keser, Bret. kasarc'h; Latin derivatives include kadáuēr, cadaver, kadénts, cadent, kadéntiā, cadence, chance, adkado, happen, adkadénts, accident, enkado, happen, enkádents, incident, dekado, decay, opkado, fall, opkádents, occident, and from p.part. kadtós, as variant kasós, giving kaskátā, cascade, kásos, case, kasualis, casual, kasuístā, casuist, opkásos, sunset, opkásiōn, occasion, etc.;

A similar but probably unrelated PIE root is dheu (older *dheuh₂), die, also dhwei, found as dhoutós, dead, Gmc. dauthaz (cf. O.E. dēad), o-grade dhóutus, death, (with suffix -tus indicating “act, process, condition”), as Gmc. dauthuz (cf. O.E. dēath); suffixed o-grade dhówio, die, as O.N. deyja; extended zero-grade dhwino, diminish, languish, as Gmc. dwinan (cf. O.E. dwinan, Du. dwijnen, Eng. dwindle). The verb comes probably from dhew, close, finish, come full circle; cf. Lat. funus, -eris, Arm. di (gen. diog), Cel. dwutu- (cf. OIr duth). Derivatives include suffixed zero-grade dhū́nos, enclosed, fortified place, hill-fort, as Gmc. dūnaz (cf. O.E. dūn, M.Du. dūne, Eng. down, dune); also, from the same source is Celtic dūnos, “hill, stronghold”, borrowed in Gmc. tūnaz (cf. O.E. tun, Eng. town); dhū́nes, funeral, as Lat. fūnus.

VI. Common Greek loans are pólemos, war, Gk. πόλεμος, giving polemikós, hostile, hence polemic.

[129] For PIE swésōr, (possibly from reflexive swe, and esōr, woman, then lit. “woman of one’s own kin group” in an exogamous society, see also swe-kuro-), with zero-grade alternative swésr, compare Gmc. swestr- (cf. Goth. swistar, O.N. systir, O.S. swestar, O.E. sweostor, swuster, O.Fris. swester, M.Du. suster, O.H.G. swester, Du. zuster, Eng. sister, Ger. Schwester), Lat. soror, O.Gk. eor, Skr. svasṛ, Av. xvaṅhar, Pers. xāhar, Toch. ṣar/ṣer, Arm. k'uyr, O.Pruss. swestro, Lith. sesuo, O.C.S. sestra, Russ. сестра, Pol. siostra, Gaul. suiior, O.Ir. siur, Welsh chwaer, Kamviri sus. It gave common derivatives latin swesrikdiom, sororicide, swesoralis, sororal, suffixed swesrnos, cousin, from Lat. sobrīnus, “maternal cousin”.

[130] For PIE súnus, also súnjus, son, compare Gmc. sunuz (cf. Goth. sunus, O.N. sonr, O.E. sunu, O.S., O.Fris. sunu, O.H.G. sunu, M.Du. sone, Dan. søn, Swed. son, Du. zoon, Ger. Sohn), Gk. huios, Skr. sunus, Av. hunush, Arm. ustr, Lith. sunus, O.C.S. synu, Rus., Pol. syn, from PIE root su, give birth, Skr. sauti, O.Ir. suth.

I. For Romance words from Lat. filius, MIE dhlios, “suckling”, son, and dhliā, daughter, as in dhīliális, filial, addhīliā, affiliate; probably from PIE dhēi, suck, although some relate it to PIE bhew, be, exist (in both IE dh- and bh- evolved as Lat. f-), then maybe IE bhlios – but, v.i. for Slavic derivative ‘diti’ meaning “child, son”, from the same root dhēi.

For IE bhew, be, exist, grow, and common derivative bhwíjo, be, become, give Gmc biju (cf. O.E. beon, O.H.G. bim, bist, Eng. be), Skt. bhavaḥ, bhavati, bhumiḥ, Lat. fieri, fui, Gk. phu-, Lith. bu'ti, O.C.S. byti, O.Ir. bi'u, Rus. быть. Other derivatives include bhówo, live, dwell, as Gmc. bowan (cf. O.N. bua, buask, O.H.G. buan, Eng. bound, husband, Ger. bauen); zero-grade bhútlos, dwelling, house, from Gmc. buthlaz (cf. O.E. bold, byldan, M.Du. bodel, Eng. build), bhwo, bring forth, make grow, as Gk. phuein, as in bhútos, bhútom, plant, and bhútis/bhúsis, growth, nature, as in bhúsikā, physics, bhusikós, physic, epíbhusis, epiphysis, diábhusis, diaphysis, supóbhusis, hypophysis, etc.; suffixed bhutús, “that is to be”, and Lat. borrowing bhutū́sos, future; zero-grade bhū́rom, dweller (especially farmer), gives Gmc. buram (cf. O.E. bur, Eng. bower, Ger. Bauer), kobhū́rom, dweller, peasant, (cf. O.E. gebur, M.Du. gheboer, ghebuer, Eng. neighbor, Du. boer, boor), bhū́riom, dwelling, as Gmc. burjam (cf. O.E. byre), or bhū́wis, settlement (cf. O.N. byr, Eng. by[law]); bhū́lom, tribe, class, race, Gk. φύλον, and bhū́lā, tribe, clan, as in Eng. phylum, phyle, phylo-; zero-grade reduced suffixal form -bhw- in Lat. compounds dubhwiós, doubtful, Lat. dubius, dubhwitā, doubt, Lat. dubitāre, probhwós, upright, Lat. probus, “growing well or straightforward”, superbhwós, superior, proud, “being above”, as Lat. superbuus; bhéumos, tree (“growing thing”), as Gmc. baumaz (cf. O.E. beam, M.Du. boom, Eng. beam).

II. Slavic “diti’, “child, son”, comes from Slavic dětę, dětь (cf. O.C.S. дѢти, S.C.S. дѣть, Russ. дитя, Pol. dziecię, Cz. dítě, Bul. дете́), MIE dhḗitis, “suckling”, child, (see also Lat. filius), from PIE dhēi, also found in Lat. fēlāre, fēmina, Gk. θήσατο , θηλή, O.Ind. dhā́tavē, Lith. dėlė̃, O.Ir. dínim.

[131] Indo-European dhúg(a)tēr, older *dhug(h₂)ter, daughter, Gmc. dukter (cf. Goth. dauhtar, O.N. dóttir, O.E. dohtor, O.H.G. tohter, Scots, Du. dochter, Swe. dotter), Osc. fútir, Gk. θυγατήρ (thugatēr), Skr. duhitṛ, Av. duydar, Pers. doxtar, Toch. ckācar/tkacer, Arm. dustr, O.Pruss. duckti, Lith. duktė, O.C.S. dŭšti, Russ. дочь, dočer', Gaul. duxtīr, Kamviri jü; Hitt. duttariyatiyaš, Luw. duttariyata.

[132] Other PIE common words referring to relatives, apart from patēr, mātēr, bhrātēr and snúsus are:

A. IE jénatēr (older *jenh₂ter), brother-in-law's wife, gives Lat. ianitrīcēs, Gk. einatēr, Skr. yātar, Phryg. ianatera, Arm. ner, Lith. jentė, Ltv. ietere, Russ. jatrov', Pol. jątrew, Kamviri iâri.

B. IE dáiwēr (older *deh₂iwer), husband’s brother, O.E. tācor, O.H.G. zeihhur, Lat. lēvir (as in Eng. levirate), Gk. dāēr, Skr. devar, Kurd. diš/héwer, Arm. taygr, Lith. dieveris, Ltv. dieveris, OCS dĕverĭ, Russ. dever', Polish dziewierz.

C. A comon MIE gálōus (PIE *gh₂lōus) is reconstructed for Gk. galōs, Phryg. gelaros, O.C.S. zlŭva, Russ. zolovka, Pol. zełwa.

D. For PIE áwos, áwjos, paternal grandfather, maternal uncle (originally *h₂euh₂os, an adult male relative other than one's father), compare Gmc. awaz (cf. Goth. awó, O.E. ēam, O.H.G. ōheim, Ger. Oheim), Lat. avus, avunculus, Gk. aia, Arm. hav, O.Pruss. awis, Lith. avynas, O.C.S. uy, Russ. uj, Pol. wuj, Gaul. avontīr, O.Ir. aue, Welsh ewythr; Hitt. huhhas. Also found in feminine áwjā, grandmother (cf. Lat. avia).

E. Indo-European nepṓts (gen. neptós), grandson, nephew, gives Gmc. nefat- (cf. O.E. nefa, O.H.G. nevo, Eng. nephew, Ger. Neffe), Lat. nepōs, Gk. anepsios, Skr. napāt, Av. napāt, O.Pers. napā, Pers. nave, Lith. nepuotis, O.C.S. nestera, Russ. nestera, Pol. nieściora, Gaul. nei, OIr. necht, níath, Welsh nai, Kamviri nâvo, Alb. nip.

F. PIE swékuros, father-in-law, and swékurā, mother-in-law, give Gmc. swikhura- (cf. Goth. swaíhrō, O.N. svǽra, Eng. swēor, O.H.G. swigur, Ger. Schwieger), Lat. socrus, Gk. hekuros, Skr. śvaśura, śvaśrū, Av. xvasura-, Arm. skesur, Lith. šešuras, O.C.S. svekŭrŭ, Russ. svekrov', Pol. świekra, Welsh chwegr, Alb. vjehërr, Kamviri č.uč.

[133] PIE jéwos, norm, right, law (possibly from PIE jeu, bind), as in O.Ind. yōḥ, Av. yaožda, refers in MIE to the body of rules and standards to be applied by courts; jówos, law, as Lat. iūs, iūris (O.Lat. ious), and jowosā, swear, Lat. jūrō (O.Lat. iouesat, see rhotacism), p.part. jowosātós, which can be used in MIE as loan words (with jour-), as p.part. jourātós, sweared, giving Latin common borrowings jourístos, jurist, apjourā, abjure, adjourā, adjure, komjourā, conjure, jourtos, jury, enjourā, injury, perjourā, perjure, joureskomsóltos, jurisconsult, jouresprūdentiā, jurisprudence (from proweidéntiā, from IE per and weid); also, common Italo-Celtic jowest(i)ós, just, as Lat. iustus, O.Ir. huisse (from earlier justjos).

MIE komselo, counsel, call together, deliberate, consider, as Lat. consulere, found in Lat. consulere senatum, MIE komsólom senátom, “to gather the senate (to ask for advice)”, from kom- "with" + selo “take, gather together” from PIE base sel- “to take, seize” .

[134] For “law” as a written or understood rule or the body of rules from the legislative authority, i.e. the concept of Lat. lex, MIE has different words:

I. Latin lex, legis, comes probably from IE lēgs, hence “collection of rules” (see PIE leg, collect), although it is used as Modern Indo-European lēghs (both IE g and gh evolved as g in Latin), from PIE legh, lie, lay, as this verb gives Germanic o-grade lóghom, law, “that which is set or laid down”, Gmc. lagam (cf. O.N.,O.E. lagu, lag-, O.H.G. lāga, Eng. law, Sca. lov, Ger. Lage), with common derivatives lēghalis, legal, lēghitimā, legitimate, lēghialis, loyal, lēgheslatṓr, legislator, priwolḗghiom, privilege (“a law affecting one person”, from priwós, private), and from Latin denominative lḗghā, depute, commision, charge, legate (“engage by contract”), as Lat. legāre, are lēghtom, legacy, komlḗghā, colleage, komlēghiális, collegial, delēghtos, delegate, relēghā, relegate. Other known derivatives include léghio, lay, as Gmc. lagjan (cf. Goth. lagjan, O.S. leggian, O.N. leggja, O.E. lecgan, O.Fris. ledza, O.H.G. lecken, M.Du. legghan, Eng. lay, Ger. legen, Du. leggen), suffixed léghros, lair, bed, as Gmc. legraz (cf. O.E. leger, O.H.G. legar, M.Du. leger, Eng. lair), and léghtos, bed, as Lat. lectus; o-grade Greek lóghos, childbirth, place for lying in wait. Compare also Gk. lekhesthai, Toch. lake/leke, Lith. at-lagai, lagaminas, Ltv. lagača, O.C.S. lego, ležati, Russ. ležat', Pol. leżeć, Gaul. legasit, O.Ir. lige, Welsh gwely, Hittite laggari.

For the same sense of “that which is set or laid down”, compare IE statútom, Lat. statutum, “statute”, from Lat. statuere, “establish” or statúmos, Lith. istatymas, from istatyti “set up, establish” (from IE stā, stand, set down); also, Ger. gesetz (from O.H.G. gisatzida, IE ko+sedio, set).

For PIE stā, stand, “place or thing that is standing”, compare common derivatives stlos, stool, as Gmc. stōlaz (cf. Goth. stols, O.N. stoll, O.E. stōl, O.H.G. stuol, O.Fris. stol, Ger. Stuhl), stntiā, stance, stage, stātiuós, stative, kirkomstntiā, circumstance, komstnts, constant, komtrāstā, contrast, distā, distnts, distant, ekstnts, enstnts, opstkolos, opstātrikós, obstetric, supstntiā, substance; stmēn, thread of the warp (a technical term), stamen; stmōn, thread, as Gk. stēmōn; starós, old, “long-standing”, as Slavic staru; zero-grade nasalized extended stanto, stand, as Gmc. standan (cf. O.N. standa, O.E.,O.S., Goth. standan, O.H.G. stantan, Swed. stå, Du. staan, Ger. stehen), as in ndherstanto, stand under, stantkárts (see kar-, hard), standard; suffixed stámnis, stem, as Gmc. stamniz (cf. O.N. stafn, O.S. stamm, O.E. stemn, stefn, O.H.G. stam, Dan. stamme, Swed. stam, Ger. Stamm); státis, place, as Gmc. stadiz (cf. Goth. staþs, O.S. stedi, O.N. staðr, O.E. stede, O.H.G. stat, Swed. stad, Du. stede, Ger. Stadt), Lat. státim, at once, stat, státiōn, a standing still, station, armistítiom, armistice, sāwelstítiom, solstice; Greek stásis, standing, stanstill, statós, placed, standing as Gmc. stadaz (cf. O.N. stadhr, Eng. bestead), Gk. statos, as in -stat, statikós, static; dekstanā, make firm, establish, destine, opstana, set one's mind on, persist; státus, manner, position, condition, attitude, with derivatives statū́sā, height, stature, statuo, set up, erect, cause to stand, and superstáts (Lat. superstes), witness, “who stands beyond”; stádhlom, stable, “standing place”, as Lat. stabulum; stadhlís, standing firm, stable, stadhlisko, establish; Greek -statās, -stat, one that causes to stand, a standing; zer0-grade reduplicated sisto, set, place, stop, stand, as Lat. sistere, in komsisto, consist, desisto, desist, eksisto, exist, ensisto, insist, enters(is)títiom, interstice, persisto, persist, resisto, resist, supsisto, subsist, and from Gk. histanai, with státis/stásis, a standing, as in apostásis, katastásis, epistásis, epistmā, knowledge (Gk. ἐπιστήμη), epistamología, supostásis, hypostasis, ikonostásis, īsostásis, metastásis, próstatā, ksu(n)sto, establish, ksustámn, system; sístos, web, tissue (“that which is set up”), Gk. ἱστός, sistoghrábhmā, histogram, etc.; compound pórstis, post, “that which stands before” (por-, before, forth, see per), Lat. postis; extended staw, “stout-standing, strong”, as stwā, place, stow, Gmc. stōwō; o-grade Greek stṓwiā, porch, in stōwikós, stoic; suffixed extended stáuros, cross, post, stake (see also stáuros, bull), enstaurā, restore, set upright again, restaurā, restore, rebuild, restauránts, restaurant; zero-grade extended stū́los, pillar, as in epistū́los, supostū́los, oktōstū́los, peristū́los, prostū́los; stewarós, thick, stout, old, as Skr. sthaviraḥ; suffixed secondary form steu-, suffixed stéurā, steering, as Gmc. steurō, and denominative verb steurio, steer, as Gmc. steurjan (cf. Goth. stiurjan, O.N. styra, O.Fris. stiora, O.E. steran, stieran, O.H.G. stiuren, Du. sturen, Ger. steuern), a verb related to stéuros, large domestic animal, ox, steer (see stáuros), and stéurikos, calf, stirk. Common derivatives include then Gmc. standan, Lat. stare, Osc. staíet, Umb. stahmei, Gk. histami, Skr. tiṣṭhati, Av. hištaiti, O.Pers. aištata, Pers. istādan, Phryg. eistani, Toch. ṣtām/stām, Arm. stanam, O.Pruss. stacle, Lith. stoti, Ltv. stāt, O.C.S. stati, Russ. stat', Polish stać, O.Ir. tá, Welsh gwastad, Alb. shtuara; Hitt. išta, Luw. išta-, Lyc. ta-.

II. PIE leg, collect, with derivatives meaning speak, gives Lat. legere, “gather, choose, pluck, read”, Gk. legein, “gather, speak”, from which MIE légtiōn, lection, lesson, legtós, read, legtósā, lecture, legéndā (from a gerundive), leyend, legibhilis, legible, légiōn, komlego, gather, collect, komlégtiōn, collection, dīlego, esteem, love, dīlegénts, diligent, eklego, elect, eklégtiōn, election, enterlego, choose, enterlegē, perceive, enterlegénts, intelligent, nelego, neglect, prelego, prelect, sakrilegós, one who steals sacred things, sakrilégiom, sacrilege (see sak), selego, select, sortilégos, diviner (see ser) sortilégiom, sortilege; légsikom, lexicon, -logos, -logue, -logía, -logy, katalego, to list, katálogos, catalogue, dialego, discourse, use a dialect, dialogue, dialégtos, dialect, légtis, speech, diction, dislegtía, dyslexia, eklegtikós, eclectic, etc.; légnom, wood, firewood (“that which is gathered”), as Lat. lignum; lógos, speech, word, reason, as Gk. λόγος, as in lógikā, logic, logikós, logic, logístikā, logistic, análogos, analogous, apología, apology, epílogos, epilogue, ksunlogísmos, syllogism, prólogos, prologue.

For PIE sak, sanctify, gives sakrós, holy, sacred, dedicated, as Lat. sacer (O.Lat. saceres), in sakrā, make sacred, consecrate, sakristános, sacristan, komsakrā, consecrate, eksakrā, execrate; compound sakrodhṓts, priest, “performer of sacred rites” (for dhōt, doer, see dhē), as Lat. sacerdōs, in sakrodhōtalis, sacerdotal; nasalized sankio, make sacred, consacrate, with p.part. sanktós, sacred, as Lat. sancire, sanctus, as in sanktidhakā, sanctify. Compare also Osc. sakrim, Umb. sacra, and (outside Italic) maybe IE saq, bind, restrict, enclose, protect, as IE words for both “oath” and “curse” are regularly words of binding (Tucker).

Proto-Indo-European ser, line up, gives Lat. serere, “arrange, attach, join (in speech), discuss”, as in sériēs, adsero, assert, desertós, desert, dissertā, dissertate, eksero, put forth, stretch out, ensero, insert; sérmōn, speech, discourse, as Lat. sermō; sŕtis, lot, fortune (perhaps from the lining up of lots before drawing), as in srtiários, sorcerer, komsŕtis, consort (“who has the same fortune”); sérā, lock, bolt, bar, (perhaps “that which aligns”).

III. For PIE dhē, set, put, place, gives some common terms referring to “(divine) law, right, fate” (cf. Eng. doom), cf. Gmc. dōn (cf. Goth. gadeths, O.N. dalidun, O.E. dōn, O.H.G. tuon, Eng. do, Ger. tun) Lat. faciō, Osc. faciiad, Umb. feitu, O.Gk. tithēmi, Skr. dadhāti, Av. daðaiti, O.Pers. adadā, Phryg. dak-, Thrac. didzos, Toch. täs/täs, Arm. ed, Lith. dėti, Ltv. dēt, Russ. det'; delat', Polish dziać; działać, Gaul. dede, Welsh dall, Alb. ndonj, Hitt. dai, Lyc. ta-. Common MIE words include dhētós, set down, created, as O.Ira. datah; suffixed dhḗtis, “thing laid down or done”, law, deed, Gmc. dēdiz (cf. O.E. dǣd, Eng. deed); dhḗkā, receptacle, Gk. θήκη, Eng. theca, as in apodhḗkā, “store, warehouse”, then extended as pharmacy (and also to Spa. bodega and Fr. boutique, both left as MIE loans), as in apodhēksios, apothecary, apodhḗkiom, apothecium, bubliodhḗkā (from Greek loan búbliom, book, from the Greek name of the Phoenician city Gubla, Búblos, Gk. βύβλος, as in n.pl. Búblia, bible, lit. “the books”), library, ambhidhḗkiom, amphithecium, endodhḗkiom, endothecium, peridhḗkiom, perithecium; o-grade dhō, do, as Gmc. dōn; suffixed and prefixed apdhṓmēn, belly, abdomen, Lat. abdōmen, perhaps “part placed away, concealed part”; suffixed dhṓmos, judgement, “thing set or put down”, and dhōmio, judge, as Gmc. dōmaz, dōmjan (cf. Goth. dōms, O.N. dōmr, O.E. dōm, dēman, Eng. doom, deem; also into Russ. Duma, from a Germanic source), also as abstract suffix -dhṓmos indicating state, condition, power (cf. O.N. -domr, O.E. -dom, Du. -dømme, Eng. -dom); zero-grade komdho, put together, establish, preserve, as Lat. condere, in apskomdho, abscond, rekomdhitós, recondite, and suffixed komdhio, season, flavor, as Lat. condīre, in komdhiméntom, condiment; suffixed zero-grade form dhakio, do, make, as Lat. facere, usually found as Latin combining form -dhaks, Lat. -fex, “maker”, -dhakiom, Lat. -ficium, “a making”, both Eng. -fice, and -dhakā, Lat. -ficāre, -dhakio, Lat. -facere, both normally Eng. -fy; some common words include -dhakients, -facient, dháktos, fact, dháktiōn, faction, dhaktṓr, factor, dhaktoría, factory, addhaktā, affect, addháktiōn, affection, amplidhakā, aplify, artidháktos, artifact, artidhákiom, artifice, beatidhakós, beatific, komdháktiōn, confection, komdhaktionā, confect, dedhakio, fail, dedhakiénts, deficient, nisdodhakio, nidify (see nisdos, nest), aididhakā, edify, aididhákiom, edifice, ekdháktos, effect, endhaktā, infect, jowostidhakā, justify, malidhaktṓr, malefactor, manudhaktórā, manufacture (see manus, hand), modidhakā, modify, gnotidhakā, notify, opidhaks, workman (see op, work), opidhákiom, service, duty, business, occupation, performance of work, (from Lat. opificium, later officium), op(i)dhaknā, office, (cf. Lat. opificina, later officina), perdhakio, finish, perdhaktós, perfect, osidhákiom, orifice (see os, mouth), ekdhakio, accomplish, ekdháktos, effect, ekdhakiénts, efficient, ekdhakáks, efficacious, endhaktā, infect, póntidhaks, pontifex (see IE pent), praidhaktos, prefect, prodháktos, profit, prodhakiénts, profiting (Eng. “proficient”), putridhakio, putrify (see pu, rot), qālidhakā, qualify (see qo), petridhakā, petrify, raridhakā, rarefy (from borrowing rārós, rare, Lat. rārus), regtidhakā, rectify (see regtos, right, straight), redhakio, feed, refect, redhaktóriom, refectory, reudhidhakio, redden, reudhidhakiénts, rubefacient, (see reudhós, red), sakridhakā, sacrify, satisdhakio, satisfy (see sā), supdhakio, suffice, supdhakiénts, sufficient; from Lat. dhákiēs, shape, face (“form imposed on something”), are dhakialis, facial, superdhákiēs, surface; further suffixed dhaklís, feasible, easy, as Lat. facilis (from O.Lat. facul), as in dhaklítā, ability, power, science, also noun dhaklís, with the sense of faculty, facilities, disdháklitā, difficulty; dhās, divine law, right, as Lat. fas; reduplicated Greek dhidho, put, Gk. tithenai, as in dhátis, a placing, Gk. θέσις, and adjective dhatós, placed, as in loans dhásis, thesis, dhatikós, thetic, anadhámn, anathema, antidhátis, diadhasis, epidhátos, supodhakā, hypothecate, supodhásis, hypothesis, metadhásis, par(a)endhidho, insert, parendhásis, parenthesis, prosdhásis, prothesis, prosthesis, ksundhásis, synthesis; dhámn, “thing placed,” proposition, theme, Gk. θέμα, as in dhamntikós, thematic; reduplicated Sanskrit dhedhē, place, Skr. dadhāti, p.part. dhatós, placed, Skr. -hita-.

In Proto-Indo-European, another common verb meaning “make” existed, qer, as Skr. karoti, “he makes”, as in Somsqrtom, Sanskrit, Skr. saṃskṛtam; also, common derivatives Greek qéras, monster, or dissimilated qélōr, monster, peloria; also, suffixed qérmn, act, deed, as Skr. karma.

III.1. Indo-European op, work, produce in abundance, include ópes, work, Lat. opus, with denominative verb opesā, operate, as Lat. operārī, as in óperā, opera, koopesā, manuopesā, maneuver; openentós, rich, wealthy, opulent, as Lat. dissim. opulentus, opnis, all (from “abundant”), Lat. omnis, as in opnibhos, omnibus; opt(a)mós, best (“wealthiest”), as Lat. optimus; koopiā/kōpiā, profusion, plenty, also copy, as in kōpiosós, copious.

III.2. For PIE pent, tread, go, compare Gmc. finthan, “come upon, discover” (cf. Goth. finþan, O.N. finna, O.E. find, O.S. findan, M.Du. vinden, Ger. finden); suffixed póntis, way, passage, found in Lat. pōns, “bridge” (earliest mening of “way, passage” preserved in priestly title pontidháks, pontifex, “he who prepares the way”), also found in Russ. путь, “path, way” (as in ‘sputnik’, fellow traveler, which could be translated as MIE “kopontinikós”); zero-grade pnto, tread, walk, in peripntetikós, peripatetic, Gk. περιπατητικός; suffixed pńtos, from Iranian (cf. Av. pɑntɑ (nominative), pɑθɑ (genitive) way, Old Persian pɑthi-), into West Germanic probably through Scythian, as Gmc. patha- (cf. O.E. paþ, pæþ, Fris. path, M.Du. pat, O.H.G. pfad, Eng. path, Du. pad, Ger. Pfad).

III.3. For PIE pu, rot, decay (from older *puh, it becomes pū, puw- before vowels), compare pūlós, rotten, filthy, as Gmc. fūlaz (cf. Goth. füls, O.N fúll, O.E. fūl, O.H.G. fül, M.Du. voul, Ger. faul), pūtrís, rotten, as Lat. puter, and púwos/púwom, pus, as Lat. pūs, Gk. puon, puos, also in enpuwo, suppurate, as in enpuwémn, empyema.

III.4. Indo-European root man-, hand, gives Lat. manus, with derivatives manudiā, manage (from V.Lat. manidiāre, into O.It. maneggiare, Fr. manager, Eng. manage, Spa. manejar, etc.), manualis, manual, manúbriom, handle, manubrium, manteno, maintain (see ten), manikóisā (from Lat. cura, Archaic Latin koisa), manighestos, caught in the act, blatant, obvious, (see chedh), manuskreibhtós, handwritten (see skreibh), manuskréibhtom, manuscript; manúpolos, handful (for -polos, full, see pela), manupolā, manipulate; mankós, maimed in the hand; mankáps, “he who takes by the hand” purchaser, (-ceps, agential suffix, “taker”; see kap), in ekmankapa, emancipate; mandā, “to put into someone's hand,” entrust, order, from Latin compound mandāre, (-dare, “to give”, see dō, although possibly from “put”, see dhē), mandtom, mandate, kommandā, command, entrust, commend, kommándos, commando, komtrāmandā, countermand, demandā, demand, rekommandā, recommend.

III.4.a. PIE ten, stretch, gives derivatives suffixed tendo, stretch, extend, as Lat. tendere, in adtendo, attend, komtendo, contend, detendo, detent, distendo, distend, ekstendo, extend, entendo, intend, pretendo, pretend, suptendo, subtend; portendo, portend (“to stretch out before”, a technical term in augury, “to indicate, presage, foretell”); suffixed tenio, Gk. teinein, with o-grade ton- and zero-grade tńtis, a stretching, tension, intensity, also loan word tásis, in katatóniā, entásis, epitásis, supotenóusā (Gk. ὑποτείνουσα), protásis, ksuntonikós, syntonic, etc.; reduplicated zero-grade tétnos [‘te-tn̥-os], stiff, rigid, as Gk. τέτανος, also loan word tétanos, tetanus; suffixed téntrom, loom, as Skr. tantram (cf. Pers. tār); stative tenē, hold, keep, maintain (from “cause to endure or continue, hold on to”), as lat. tenēre, in tenáks, tenacious, tenor, apstenē, abstain, komtenē, contain, komtenuós, continuous, komtenuā, continue, detenē, detain, entertenē, entertain, tenánts, holder, tenant, lieutenant, manutenē, maintain, optenē, obtain, pertenē, pertain, pertenáks, pertinacious, retenē, retain, suptenē, sustain; derivatives meaning “stretched”, hence “thin” include tnús, tnuís, as Gmc. thunniz, thunwiz (cf. O.N. þunnr, O.E. thynne, W.Fris. ten, O.H.G. dunni, M.L.G. dunne, Du. dun, Ger. dünn, Eng. thin), tenús, tenuís, thin, rare, fine, as Lat. tenuis, in adtenuā, attenuate, ekstenuā, extenuate, tenerós, tender, delicate, as Lat. tener, (en)teneresko, touch, intenerate; derivatives meaning “something stretched or capable of being stretched, a string” include Greek ténōn, tendon, o-grade suffixed tónos, string, hence sound, pitch, tone, and suffixed zero-grade tńia, band, ribbon.

III.4.b. PIE chedh, ask, pray, gives suffixed chédhio, pray, entreat, Gmc. bidjan (cf. O.E. biddan, Ger. bitten, O.E. bid), chédhom, entreaty, as Gmc. bidam (cf. Goth. bida, O.E. bedu, gebed, O.H.G. beta, M.Du. bede, Eng. bead, Ger. bitte); IE chedhtós, into Lat. -festus, giving nchestós, hostile (from “inexorable”), manuchestós, manifest, caught in the act.

III.4.c. PIE skreibh, cut, separate, sift (an extension of sker), used as scratch, incise, hence write, as Lat. scrībere, giving skreibhtós, written, skréibhā, scribe, skréibhtos, script, skreibhtósiom, scriptorium, skréibhtā/skreibhtósā, scripture, adskreibho, ascribe, kirkomskrībho, circumscribe, komskreibho, conscript, deskreibho, describe, enskreibho, inscribe, preskreibho, prescribe, proskreibho, proscribe, reskreibho, rescript, supskreibho, subscribe, superskreibho, superscribe, transkreibho, transcribe; from Greek is skréibhos, scratching, sketch, pencil, as Eng. scarify.

III.5. Common PIE sā, satisfy, as zero-grade satós, sated, satiated, as Gmc. sathaz (cf. Goth. saþs, O.N. saðr, O.H.G. sat, M.Du. sat, Eng. sad, Ger. satt, Du. zad), verb satio, satisfy, sate, as Gmc. sathōn (cf. O.E. sadian, Eng. sate); suffixed zero-grade saturós, full (of food), sated, as Lat. satur, in sáturā, satire, Lat. satyra, and saturā, saturate, Lat. saturā; satís, enough, sufficient, as Lat. satis, satiā, satisdhakio, satisfy, satietā, satiety; sadrós, thick, as Gk. hadros.

[135] Indo-European root (s)teu, push, stick, knock, beat, is behind suffixed studo, be diligent (“be pressing forward”), Lat. studere, giving stúdiom, eagerness, then “study, application”, as in studiā, study, M.L. studiāre; other derivatives include extended (s)teupo, push, stick, knock, beat, as Gk. typtein, typos, Skt. tup-, tundate, Goth. stautan “push”, O.N. stuttr, and common Germanic steupós, high, lofty, as Gmc. staupaz (cf. O.E. steap, O.Fris. stap, M.H.G. stouf, Eng. steep).

[136] PIE sūs, pig, swine, and derivatives swno-s/-m, súkā, give Gmc. swinam (cf. Goth. swein, O.S., O.Fris. M.L.G., O.H.G.,O.E. swin, M.Du. swijn, Du. zwijn, Ger. Schwein), sugō (cf. O.N. sýr, O.E. sū, O.S., O.H.G. su, Du. zeug, Eng. sow, Ger. Sau), Lat. sūs, suinus, Umb. sif, Gk. hūs, Skr. sūkara, Av. hū, Toch. -/suwo, Ltv. sivēns, O.C.S. svinija Russ. svin, Polish świnia, Celtic sukko (cf. O.Ir. socc, Welsh hwch, O.E. hogg), Alb. thi.

[137] PIE kákkā, shit, excrement, and verb shit, cf. Ger. Kacke, Lat. cacāre, Gk. kakkaō, Pers. keke(h), Arm. k'akor, Lith. kaka, Russ. kakat', O.Ir. cacc, Welsh cach.

Another common words for “shit” are Gmc. skitan, from PIE skeit-, “split, divide, separate”, and Lat. ekskreméntom, from ekskerno, “separate”, therefore both revealing an older notion of a “separation” of the body.

For IE krei, sieve, discriminate, distinguish, compare kéidhrom/kéitrom, sieve, as Gmc. khrithram (cf. O.E. hridder, hriddel, Eng. riddle), Lat. crībrum; suffixed kréimēn, judgment, crime, as Lat. crīmen, as in kreimenális, criminal, rekreimenā, recriminate, diskréimēn, distinction, diskreimenā, discriminate; suffixed zero-grade krino, sift, separate, decide, as Lat. cernere, hence MIE metathesized loan kirno, as in p.part kritós/kirtós, in kírtos, certain, komkirno, concern, komkírtos, concert, dekrítos, decree, diskirno, discern, diskomkirtā, disconcert, ekskirno, separate, ekskritós, separated, purged, ekskritā, excrete, ekskriméntom, excrement, kirtitúdōn, certitude, nkirtitúdōn, incertitude, swekirno, secern, swekritā, secret, swekritásios, secretary; suffixed zero-grade krinio, separate, decide, judge, explain, as Gk. κρίνειν, in krítis/krísis, crisis, kritikós, critic, kritḗriōn, criterion, diakritikós, diacritic, endokrinós, endocrine, eksokrinós, exocrine, supokritía, hypocrisy, krítā, judge, haimatokrítā, hematocrit (MIE haima-, haimato-, blood, are loan words from Gk. αἷμα, -ατος, usually MIE *saimn).

b. PIE wem, vomit, gives O.N. váma, Lat. vomere, Gk. emeso, Skr. vamiti, Av. vam, Pers. vātāk, O.Pruss. wynis, Lith. vemti, Ltv. vemt.

c. PIE sp(j)ew, spit, gave Gmc. spjewan (cf. Goth. spiewan, ON spýja, O.E. spiwan, O.H.G. spīwan, Eng. spew, Ger. speien), Lat. spuere, Gk. ptuein, Skr. ṣṭīvati, Av. spāma, Pers. tuf, Arm. t'us, Lith. spjauti, Ltv. spļaut, O.C.S. pljujǫ, Russ. pljuju, Pol. pluć, Osset. thu,

d. An old kwas, cough, is the origin of Gmc. hwostan (cf. O.N. hósta, O.E. hwōsta, O.H.G. huosto, Ger. Husten, Skr. kasāte, Toch. /kosi, Lith. kosėti, Ltv. kāsēt, Russ. kašljat', Pol. kaszleć, Ir. casachdach, Welsh pas, Alb. kollje, Kamviri kâsa.

[138] The name of the Rhine comes from Ger. Rhine, in turn from M.H.G. Rin, ultimately from an IE dialect, originally lit.“that which flows”, from PIE rej, flow, run, as Gk. rhein, with derivatives including suffixed rinuo, run, as Gmc. rinwan, rinnan, (cf. Goth., O.S., O.E. O.H.G., rinnan, O.N. rinna, M.Du. runnen, Ger. rinnen), Gmc. ril- (cf. Dutch ril, Low German rille, Eng. rill); suffixed réiwos, stream, river, as Lat. rīuus.

[139] IE albhós, white, gives derivatives Lat. albus, Umb. alfu, Gk. alphos, Russ. lebed', Lyc. alb-. Other derivatives are álbhos, álbhis, “white thing”, elf (from “white ghostly apparition”), as Gmc. albaz, albiz (cf. O.N. alfr Eng. ælf, Gm. Alps, Eng. elf, also in Welsh elfydd, and in Albheron, Oberon from a Germanic source akin to O.H.G. Alberich, into O.Fr. Auberon), and fem. albhíniā, elfin; Latin derivatives include albhinós, albino, álbhom, album, albhómōn, albhómonā, albumen.

A proper IE word for “eagle” is órnus (from older *h₃erno-, cf. Hitt. ḫaran), as Gmc. arnuz (cf. Goth. ara, O.N. ari, O.E. earn, O.H.G. arn, Eng. erne, Ger. Aar), órnits, bird, as in Gk. ornitho-, and other derivatives from PIE root or-, large bird, cf. Gk. orneon, Arm. arciv, Old Prussian arelis, Lith. erelis, Ltv. ērglis, Russ. orel, Pol. orzeł, O.Ir. irar, Welsh eryr, Alb. orë.

Common MIE names are Skotts, Scot, Skott(isk)léndhom, Scotland, and Germanic Skottiskós, scottish.

For “white, shining”, compare also PIE argós, argís, as Goth. unairkns, O.E.. eorcnan(stān), Lat. arguō, Osc. aragetud, Gk. arguros, erchan, Skr. arjuna, Av. arəzah, Phryg. arg, Thrac. arzas, Toch. ārki/arkwi, Arm. arcat', Gaul. Argentoratum, O.Ir. argat, Welsh ariant, Hitt. ḫarkiš. Common derivatives include Latin argéntom, silver, argent, argentínā, argentine; Greek argil(l)os, white clay, argil, argúros, silver, arginouís, brilliant, bright-shining; IE argús, brilliant, clear, in arguio, make clear, demonstrate, argue, Lat. arguere; suffixed argrós, white, Gk. argos.

[140] Frankish loan words frankós, frank, and Fránkos, freeman, a Frank, (cf. O.E. Franca, O.H.G. Franko, M.L. Franc, Eng. Frank), and Frankiskós, Frankish (cf. O.E. frencisc, Eng. French), gives Fránkiā, France (as Fr. France, and not ~~Frankā~~, which would be like Fr. ~~Franche~~), and Frankḗs, french.

Other country names in MIE:

a. Spain: Phoenician/Punic ‘Î-šəpānîm “the isle of hares” (where initial “hi” is a definite article). The Phoenician settlers found hares in abundance, and they named the land in their Canaanite dialect. The Latin-speaking Romans adapted the name as Hispania. The Latin name was altered among the Romance languages through O.Fr. Espagne and espaignol (through M.L. Hispaniolus), and entered English from Norman French, hence MIE Hispániā, Hispania, and Hispanós, Hispaniard, Hispanikós, Hispanic, and Spániā, Spain, Spanós, Spanish, cf. Lat. hispānus, Gk. ispanós.

b. Greece: From Gk. Γραικοί, Lat. Graecus (claimed by Aristotle to refer to the name of the original people of Epirus) is the general international name, hence MIE Graikós, Greek, Gráikiā, Greece. However, the proper old name is Sellēnós, Hellene, Greek, (possibly from “luminary, bright”), as Gk.῞Ελληνος, Sellēnikós, Hellenic, and Sellás or Selládā, Hellas/Ellas/Ellada, Greece, a word possibly related to Gk. έλ- (hel-) “sun, bright, shiny”, (cf. Gk. helios, “sun”, from IE sāwel), in turn possibly related to the tribe of the Selloi, Gk. Σελλοί.

c. Denmark: The Dánes, Danes (Lat. Dani), were the dominant people of the region since ancient times. The origin of their tribal name is unknown, although it could be a Latin borrowing from a Germanic name, and as Gmc. dan- is IE dhen-, it is possibly related to PIE dhen, “low, flat”, in reference to the lowland nature of most of the country (cf. etymology of Poland and Netherland). Danēmmárgs, Denmark, (maybe purer *Dhenēmmárgā, “the March of the low landers”), is then from compound Dans (in gen.pl) + margs, boundary, border.

PIE margs, boundary, border, gives derivatives margs, Gmc. mark-, “boundary, border territory”, also “landmark, boundary marker”, and “mark in general” (and in particular a mark on a metal currency bar, hence a unit of currency), cf. Goth. marka, O.N. mörk, O.E. mearc, merc, O.Fr. marc, O.Fris. merke, Du. merk, Ger. Mark, Sca. mark, and margio, note, notice, Gmc. markjan (cf. O.N. merki, O.H.G. merken, O.E. mearcian), in remargio, remark; also, derived from Germanic, compare fem. márgā, “mark out, mark”, Gmc. markōn (cf. Frank. markōn, O.It. marcare), and “border country, march, marc”, Gmc. markō (cf. O.Fr. marche, M.Lat. marca), and. Other derivatives include márgōn, border, edge, margin, as Lat. margo, in (ek)margonā, emarginate; Celtic variant mrógis, territory, land, mrógos, district, (cf. O.Ir. mruig, bruig, Welsh bro, Corn. bro, Bret. broin), in compound from British Celtic Kómmrogos, Welsh, “fellow countryman” (cf. Welsh Cymro), as in Kómmrogiā, Wales, Welsh Cymru.

d. Romanía, Romania, comes from Rómā, Rome, hence the same MIE adjective Romānós for (ancient and modern) Roman and Romanian people (cf. Rom. români), although modern borrowings MIE Romāniós/Romānianós and Romānistós (cf. common endings Rom. -eană, -eşte) could be used for Romanian. Older variants of the name were written with -u, as Eng. Rumania (probably a French-influenced spelling, from Fr. Roumanie), as Rom. rumâni.

[141] From PIE pej, be fat, swell, are derivatives zero-grade ptuitā, moisture exuded from trees, gum, phlegm, as in pītuitásiā, pituitary; pnus, pine tree (yielding a resin), as Lat. pīnus, in pniā, pine, piña, pniōn, piñon; suffixed pwōn, fat, as Gk. pīōn; suffixed pīweriós, fat, fertile, as in Pweriā, “fertile region”, cf. O.Ir. Īweriū (Ir. Eire, also in O.E. Īras, Eng. Ire[land]), Gk. Pīeriā (a region of Macedonia, cf. Eng. Pierian Spring); extended o-grade póitos, plump, fat, in verb póitio, fatten, Gmc. faitjan, p.part. poiditós, fattened, giving póiditos, fat, as Gmc. faitithaz (cf. O.N. feitr, O.E. fætt, Du. vet, Ger. fett). Compare also Lat. pinguis, Gk. pitys, Skr. pituh, pitudaruh, payate, Lith. pienas.

Another IE common word for “pine tree” is gelunā, found in O.N. giolnar, Gk. kheilos, Arm. jelun/čelun, Lith. pušis, Ir. giúis.

[142] The international name Montinécros, from necrós móntis, black mount(ain) (after the appearance of Mount Lovćen or its dark coniferous forests), was given by Italian conquerors, possibly from Venice. The term was loan-translated in Slavic (substituting their older name, Sla. Zeta) as Krsn Córā (also Krsnocóriā), from krsnós, black (cf. Sla. čurnu, O.Pruss. kirsnan, Lith. kirsnas, Skr. kṛsna, from PIE kers), and córā, mount(ain).

PIE nominal root kers, heat, fire, gives kértā, hearth, “burning place”, as Gmc. kherthō (cf. O.E. heorð, O.Fris. herth, M.Du. hert, Ger. Herd); zero-grade kŕbōn, charcoal, ember, carbon, as Lat carbō, extended kremā, burn, cremate, as Lat. cremāre; sufixed extended Greek kerámos, potter's clay, earthenware, as in keramikós, ceramic; and in colour (apart from krsnós, black, already seen), compare extended verb krāso, color, as Russ. krasit’.

[143] IE reconstructed gńingos, “leader of the people”, king, as Gmc. kuningaz (cf. O.N. konungr, O.H.G. kuning, O.E. cyning, Du. koning, Dan. konge, Ger. könig), is related to O.E. cynn, “family, race”, Mod. Eng. kin (see gen); O.C.S. kunegu “prince” (cf. Rus. knyaz, Boh. knez), Lith. kunigas “clergyman”, and even Finnish kuningas “king”, are loans from Germanic. MIE neuter gningodhṓmos is a loan translation of Eng. king-dom, Du. konge-dømme (see dhē), as gningorḗgiom is for Gmc. kuninga-rikjam (cf. Du. koninkrijk, Ger. Königreich, Da. kongerige, Swe. kungarike, Nor. kongerike). However, note that the proper O.E. word for “kingdom” was simply rīce, as PIE and MIE rḗgiom.

[144] MIE Sweónes (maybe orig. Swiónis), Suiones, is a proper reconstruction for Gmc. swioniz, (cf. O.E. Sweon, Sweonas); in O.N. svear/svíar, the n disappeared in the plural noun, still preserved in the old adjective Swe. svensk, MIE Sweoniskós, swedish. The name became part of a compound, MIE Sweotéutā, “The Suione People” (see teutā), as O.N Svíþjóð, O.E. Sweoðeod (cf. Ice. Svíþjóð, Eng. Sweden, Ger. Schweden, Du. Zweden). The only Germanic nation having a similar naming was the Goths, who from the name Gmc. Gutans (cf. Suehans, “Swedes”) created the form gut-þiuda. The name Swethiuth and its different forms gave rise to the different IE names for Sweden (cf. M.Lat. Suetia, Gk. Σουηδία, Hi. Svī.dan, Pers. Sued, Lith. Švedija, Russ. Швеция, Pol. Szwecja, even Maltese Svezja, Heb. Shvedia, Jap. Suwēden, Kor. Seuweden, etc). Another modern (Scandinavian) compound comes from MIE Swéorḗgiom, “The Realm of the Swedes”, cf. O.N. Svíariki, O.E. Swēorīċe (cf. Swe. Sverige, Da.,Nor. Sverige, Fae. Svøríki, Ltv. Zviedrija, Saami Sveerje, Svierik). Another Germanic compound that has not survived into modern times is Sweoléndhom, “The Land of the Swedes”, as O.E. Swēoland.

[145] Germanic Finnléndhom, “Land of the Finns”, comes from the Norsemen's name for the Sami or Lapps, Finn or Finnós, Finn (cf. O.N. finnr, O.E. finnas). The word may be related to Eng. fen or find.

[146] A PIE base per-, traffic in, sell (“hand over, distribute”, see per), is behind enterpreso, negotiate, as in entérprets, go-between, negotiator, interpret, verb enterpretā, interpret; prétiom, price, Lat. pretium, in pretiōsós, precious, adpretiā, appreciate, depretiā, depreciate; perno, sell, as in porn, prostitute, as Gk. πορνη, in pornogrbhós (or abb. pornós), pornographic, porno.

Other meanings of IE base per- (from per, see also verb pero), are try, risk (from “lead over”, “press forward”), and strike. Compare from the first meaning extended pḗros, danger, as Gmc. fēraz (cf. O.S.,O.N. fár, O.E. fǣr, Ger. Gefahr Eng. fear); suffixed pertlom, danger, peril, as Lat. perīclum; suffixed and prefixed eksperio, try, learn by trying, as in ekspertós, tried, ekspértos, experienced, expert, eksperiméntom, experiment, eksperiéntiā, experience; périā, trial, attempt, as Gk. πειρα, in peritā, pirate, as Gk. πειρατής, emperiākós, empiric. From the second meaning is extended Latin prem-, pres, as in prémo, press, presós, pressed, giving présiōn, pressure, depremo, depress, deprésiōn, depression, ekspremo, express, ekspresós, express, eksprésos, espresso, enpremo, impress, enpremtós/enpresós, impressed, enpremtā, imprint, oppremo, oppress, oppresós, oppressed, repremo, repress, represós, repressed, reprementā, reprimand, suppremo, suppress, suppresós, suppressed.

[147] Latin eksáliom, exilium, “banishment”, comes from eksáls, Lat. exul, “banished person”, from eks, “away”, and PIE al, “wander”, as in Gk. alasthai.

[148] MIE parénts, father or mother, ancestor, as Lat parens, comes from verb paro, bring forth, give birth to, produce, Lat. parere, from PIE base per-, bring forth, as in parā, make ready, in preparā, prepare; for IE derivatives referring to young animals, cf. O.E. fearr, “bull”, O.H.G. farro, Ger. Farre, Gk. poris, Skr. prthukaḥ, Lith. pariu, Cz. spratek.

[149] Indo-European ówis (older *h₂owi-), sheep, gives Gmc. awiz (cf. Goth. awēþi, ON ǽr, O.E. ēow, O.H.G. ouwi, M.Du. ooge, Eng. ewe, Ger. Aue), Lat. ovis, Umbrian uvem, Gk. οις, Skr. avika, Toch. āuw, Arm. hoviv, O. Pruss. awins, Lith. avis, Ltv. avs, Russ. овца, Polish owca, O.Ir. ói, Welsh ewig, Hitt. ḫawi, Luw. ḫāwi-, Lyc. xabwa. A common Latin derivative is owinós, ovine.

[150] PIE root pek, pluck, gives péku/pekū, cattle; compare Gmc. fehu (Goth. faihu, O.N. fé, O.E. feoh, O.H.G. fihu, Eng. fee, fellow, Ger. Vieh), Lat. pecu, pecū, Gk. πεκω, Skr. paśu, Av. pasu, Arm. asr, O. Pruss. pecku, Lith. pekus, Alb. pilë. Common derivatives include pékudom, feudal estate, feud, from Med.Lat. feudum, from Gmc. fehu; pekū́niā, property, wealth, as Lat. pecunia, gives pekūniāsiós, pecuniary, npekūnios, impecunious; and suffixed pekū́liom, riches in cattle, private property, gives pekūliaris, peculiar, and pekulā, peculate.

[151] PIE égnis, fire, referred to fire as a living force (compare áqā-após), different to the inanimate substance pwr, and gave known IE derivatives as Lat. ignis, Skr. agni, Lith. ugnis, Ltv. uguns, OCS ognĭ, Russ. огонь, Polish ogień, Alb. enjte; Hitt. agniš. However, in Modern Indo-European (due to the disappearance of such old distinctions) both words have usually come to mean the same, with many dialects choosing only one as the main word for a general “fire”.

[152] Proto-Indo-European bhrūs, brow, is found in Ger. brū- (O.E. brū, Nor. brún, Ger. Braue, Eng. brow), Gk. οφρύς, Skr. bhrus, Pers. abru, Toch. pärwāṃ/pärwāne, O.Pruss. wubri, Lith. bruvis, O.C.S. bruvi, Russ. бровь, Polish brew, Cel. briva (>bhrēwā, bridge), O.Ir. bru; Ancient Macedonian abroutes.

[153] For Indo-European kerd, heart (old inflection Nom. kerds, Acc. kérdm, Gen. krdós, cf. Anatolian kart-s), compare suffixed kérdēn, as Gmc. khertōn (cf. Goth. hairto, O.S. herta, O.N. hjarta, O.E. heorte, O.H.G. herza, Du. hart, Eng. heart, Ger. Herz), Lat. cor (stem cord-), Gk. kardia, Skr. hṛdaya, Av. zərədā, Arm. sird/sirt, O. Pruss. seyr, Lith. širdis, Ltv. sirds, O.C.S. srĭdĭce, sreda, Russ. serdce, Pol. serce, O.Ir. cride, Welsh craidd, Bret. kreiz, Kamviri zâra. Common MIE words are from Latin zero-grade krdialis, cordial, adkrdā, accord, komkrdā, concord, diskrdā, discord, rekrdā, record; further suffixed zero-grade Greek kŕdiā, heart, also stomach, orifice, gives krdiakós, cardiac, endokŕdiom, endocardium, epikŕdiom, epicardium, megalokŕdiā, perikŕdiom, pericardium; from compound kred-dha-, “to place trust” (an old religious term, from zero-grade of dhē, do, place), is krēdo, believe, as Lat. credere (cf. Fr. croire, It. credere, Spa. creer, Pt. acreditar, crêr, Rom. crede), in kredénts, credence, kredibhilis, credible, kréditos, credit, krédō, “I believe”, credo, kredolós, credulous.

West Germanic “believe” comes from IE koloubhio, “to hold dear”, esteem, trust, as Gmc. galaubjan (cf. O.E. geleafa, ge-lēfan, gelyfan, Du. geloven, Ger. glauben), from PIE verbal root leubh, care, desire, love, as L. lubet (later libet), Osc. loufit, Skt. lubhyati, Lith. liaupsė, O.C.S. ljubŭ, Pol. lubić, Alb. lum. Common derivatives include leubhós, dear, beloved, as Gmc. leubaz (cf. Goth. liufs, O.N. ljutr, O.E. leof, O.Fris. liaf, O.H.G. liob, Eng. lief, Ger. lieb), also o-grade lóubhā, permission, as Gmc. laubō (cf. O.E. leafe, Eng. leave); from zero-grade lúbhā, love, is Gmc. lubō (cf. Goth. liufs, O.N. ljúfr, O.E. lufu, O.Fris. liaf, O.H.G. liob, Eng. love, not found elsewhere as a noun, except O.H.G. luba, Ger. Liebe); also zero-grade stative lubhē, be dear, be pleasing, as Lat. libēre (O.Lat. lubēre); also, lúbhīdōn, pleasure, desire, as Lat. libīdō.

North Germanic verb “tro” comes from IE deru, faith, trust, as Eng. trust.

Slavic verb for believe, wério, comes from werós, true, cf. Russ. верить, Pol., wierzyć, Sr.-Cr. vjerovati, Slo. verovati, etc.

[154] IE kwōn, dog, gives derivatives Gmc. khundas (from kuntós, originally Genitive, cf. Goth. hunds, O.E. hund, O.N. hundr, O.H.G. hunt, Eng. hound, Ger. Hund), Lat. canis, Gk. kuōn, Skr. śvan, Av. spā, Pers. sag, Phryg. kunes, Thrac. dinu-, Dacian kinu-, Toch. ku/ku, Arm. šun, O.Pruss. sunis, Lith. šuo, Ltv. suns, Russ. suka, Pol. suka, Gaul. cuna, O.Ir. cū, Welsh ci, Alb. shakë; Hitt. śuwanis, Lyd. kan-. Derivatives include kwonikós, cynic, from Gk. κυνικός; variant Latin kánis gives kanāsiós, pertaining to dogs, kanrios, canary, kaninós, canine.

[155] Compare the well-attested derivatives of PIE numerals from one to ten:

Derivatives include alnóinos, “all one”, alone, from alnós óinos, as W.Gmc. all ainaz (cf. Eng. alone, Ger. alleine, Du. alleen), nóin(os), “not one”, none, from ne óinos, as Gmc. nain-az (cf. O.S., M.L.G. nen, O.N. neinn, O.E. nan, M.Du., Du. neen, O.H.G., Ger. nein, Eng. none), Lat. nōn (cf. also Lat. nec unus in It. nessuno, Spa. ninguno, Pt. ninguém); from Latin are óiniōn, union, oinio, unite, oinitós, united, óinitā, unity, oinitā, unite, adunā, join, koadunā, coadunate, oinanamós, unanimous, oinikórnis, unicorn, oiniwérsos, universe; suffixed oinikós, one, anyone, and sole, single, as Gmc. ainigaz (cf. O.S. enig, O.N. einigr, O.E. ænig O.Fris. enich, Du. enig, Ger. einig, Eng. any), Lat. ūnicus, also in óinkiā, one twelfth of a unit, as Lat. ūncia.

For ordinal MIE prwós [pr̥:-wós], first, also dialectal preismós, prōtós, pristós [pr̥-is-‘tos] (see more derivatives from per, forward, through, in front of, before, early, hence “foremost, first”, cf. Hitt. para, Lyc. pri), compare Gmc. furistaz (cf. O.N. fyrstr, O.E. fyrst, O.H.G. furist, fruo, Eng. first, Ger. Fürst, früh), Lat. primus, Osc. perum, Umb. pert, Gk. prōtos, Skr. prathama, Av. paoiriia, pairi, Osset. fyccag, farast, Toch. parwät/parwe, O.Pruss. pariy, Lith. pirmas, Ltv. pirmais, O.C.S. pĭrvŭ, Russ. pervyj, Polish pierwszy, O.Ir. er, Welsh ar, Alb. i parë, Kamviri pürük.

PIE root sem-, one, together, united (Nom. sēms, Gen. semós, and as prefix sm̥), which refers to the unity considered as a whole, and appears usually in word compounds, as in seme, at once, at the same time, sémel, one time; sémele, formerly, once, etc. Compare Gmc. sam- (cf. Goth. sama, O.N. sami, O.E. sum, O.H.G. saman, Eng. some, Ger. [zu]sammen), Lat. semel, Gk. heis, Skr. sakṛt, Av. hakeret, O.Pers. hama, Toch. sas/ṣe, Arm. mi, Lith. sa, Russ. сам, O.Ir. samail, Welsh hafal, Alb. gjithë, Kamviri sâ~; Hitt. san, Lyc. sñta.

Derivatives include Greek full grade semdekmksunlábikos, hendecasyllabic (from MIE borrowing ksúnlabā, syllable, Gk. sullambanein, to combine in pronunciation, from ksun and Gk. lambanein, to take), semodheísmos, henotheism (see dhēs), suposem, hyphen (see supo); smkḿtom, see kḿtom, hundred; suffixed sémel, at the same time, Lat. simul, as in semeltaniós, simultaneous, adsemelā, assemble; sem(g)olós, alone, single, Lat. singulus; compound sémper (see per), always, ever (“once and for all”), Lat. semper; o-grade som, together, Skr. sam, and zero-grade extended sḿmn, together with, at the same time, as Gk. hama; o-grade suffixed somós, same, as Gmc. samaz (cf. O.N. samr, Eng. same), Gk. homos, in somo-, homo-, somio-, homeo-, somīlos, crowd, somilía, discourse, homily, Gk. ὁμιλία; somalós, like, even, level, in nsomalós, anomalous, somalogrbhikos, homolographic; lengthened sōmís, fitting, agreeable, (< “making one”, “reconciling”), as Gmc. somiz (cf. O.N. sœmr, Eng. seem, seemly), also in sōmo-, self, Russ. sam(o); zero-grade sm-, as Gk. ha-, a-, “together”; smplós, simple, Lat. simplus, Gk. haploos, haplous, also sḿpleks, “one fold”, simple, as Lat. simplex, in smplékitā, simplicity; suffixed sḿmos, one, a certain one, also -smmos, like, as Gmc. sumaz (cf. O.E. sum, -sum, Eng. some, -some); smmalós, of the same kind, like, similar, as Lat. similis, adsmmalā, assimilate; it is usually reconstructed a suffixed sḿteros, one of two, other, as Gk. heteros (older hateros), although a more probable sńteros should be used.

Possibly unrelated is IE sḗmi, half, generally as first member of a compound, as Gmc. sēmi- (cf. O.E. sām-, in compounds samblind, samlæred, “half-taught, badly instructed”, samstorfen), Gk. hēmi, and Lat. semi- and sémis, half.

A common PIE ordinal “second” was alterós (from PIE al, beyond) and alternative anterós, “the other of the two, the second, other”, compare Gmc. antharaz (cf. O.S. athar, O.N. annarr, Ger. ander, Goth. anþar), Lat. alter, Lith. antras, Skt. antarah, both senses still found in some modern languages, cf. Da. anden, Swe. andra, Nor. andre, Ice. annar.

To avoid ambiguity, some languages have renewed the vocabulary, as in suffixed participial Lat. seqondos, following, coming next, second (from PIE seq, follow), borowed in English second, while others have made compounds imitating the general ordinal formation in their dialects (cf. Ger. zweite, Du. tweede, Gk. δεύτερος, Skr. dvitīya, Fr. deuxième, Ir. dóú, Bret. daouvet, etc.), hence also translated as Modern Indo-European dwoterós, dwitós, dwiós, etc.

Slavic languages have undergone a curious change, retaining the same words for “other” and “second” (and therefore the ambiguity), but using a different word meaning originally “friend” (hence “other”), from IE deru, be firm, solid (hence also “be trustworthy”), compare O.Sla. дроугъ, giving Russ. друг, O.Pol. drug, Sr.-Cr., Slo. drȗg, Cz., Slk. druh, O.Pruss. draugiwaldūnen, Lith. draũgas, sudrugti, Lath. dràugs, and even Germanic (cf. verbs Goth. driugan, O.N. draugr, O.E. dréogan, Eng. dial. dree, “endure”, and as noun Goth. gadraúhts, O.H.G. trucht, truhtin).

III. For PIE root tri- trei- (cf. Hitt. tri-, Lyc. trei), giving IE tréjes, three, compare Gmc. thrijiz (cf. Goth. þreis, O.N. þrír, O.E. þrēo, O.H.G. drī, Eng. three, Ger. drei), Lat. trēs, Umb. trif, Osc. trís, O.Gk. τρείς, Gk.Cret. τρέες, Gk.Lesb. τρῆς, Skr. tráyas, tri, Av. thri, Phryg. thri-, Illyr. tri-, Toch. tre/trai, Arm. erek', O.Pers. çi, Pers. se, O.Pruss. tri, Lith. trỹs, Ltv. trīs, Sla. trьje (cf. O.C.S. trĭje, O.Russ. трие, O.Cz. třiе, Polish trzy), Gaul. treis, O.Ir. treí, Welsh tri, Alb. tre. Modern derivatives include zero-grade trístis (from tri+st, see stā), “third person standing by”, witness, as Lat. testis, in trístā, witness, trístāménts, testament, tristíkolos, testicle, adtristā, attest, komtristā, contest, detristā, detest, optristā, obtest, protristā, protest, tristidhakā, testify; suffixed o-grade form trójā, group of three, gives Russian tróikā.

IV. Alternating forms of four are qetwor, qtwor, qetur, qetr, qetwr. Unlike one, two, three, the inflected forms of “four”, i.e. m. qetwóres, f. qetwesóres, n. qetwṓr, are not common to all IE dialects, and therefore not recommended for its use in MIE; compare Gmc. fe(d)wor (cf. Goth. fidwor, O.N. fjórir, O.S. fiwar, O.Fris. fiuwer, Frank. fitter-, O.E. fēower, O.H.G. feor, Eng. four, Ger. vier Dan. fire, Sw. fyra), Lat. quattuor, Osc. petora, Umb. petor, Gk.Hom. τέσσαρες, πίσυρες, Gk.Ion. τέσσερες, Gk.Dor. τέτορες, O.Ind. catvā́ras, catúras, Av. čathwar, čaturam, Pers. čahār, Kurd. čwar, Thrac. ketri-, Toch. śtwar/śtwer, Arm. č'ork', O.Pruss. keturjāi, Lith. keturì, O.Ltv. сеtri, O.C.S. četyri, Russ. четыре, Pol. cztery, Gaul. petor, O.Ir. cethir, Welsh pedwar, Bret. pevar, Alb. katër, Kam. što; Lyc. teteri.

For ordinal adjective qeturós, qetwrtós (also qeturtós), compare Gmc. fedworthaz (cf. O.E. fēortha, fēowertha, O.H.G. fiordo, M.Du. veerde, Ger. vierte, Eng. fourth), Lat. quārtus, Lith. ketvirtas, Russ. четвёртый, Cz. čtvrtý, Ir. ceathrú, Welsh pedwaredd.

VI. For PIE “six”, two forms are found, seks and sweks, (originally perhaps *weks) compare Gmc. sekhs (cf. Goth. saihs, O.S. seks, O.N., O.Fris. sex, O.E. siex, O.H.G. sēhs, M.Du. sesse), Lat. sex, Osc. sehs, Umb. sehs, Gk. έξ, Skr. ṣaṣ, Av. khšwuaš, Pers. šeš, Osset. æxsæz, Illyr. ses-, Toch. ṣäk/ṣkas, Arm. vec', O.Pruss. usjai, Lith. šeši, Ltv. seši, O.C.S. šestĭ, Russ. шесть, Polish sześć, Gaul. suex, O.Ir. sé, Welsh chwech, Alb. gjashtë, Kam. ṣu.

For ordinal s(w)ekstós, compare Gmc. sekhsthaz (cf. O.E. siexta, Fris.,Ger. sechste, Du. zesde, Da. sjette) Latin sextus, Gk. ἑκτος, Lithuanian šeštas, Russ. шестой, Cz. šestý, Sr.-Cr.,Slo. šesti, Ir. séú, Welsh chweched, Bret. c'hwec'hvet, etc.

VII. For PIE séptm, seven, compare Gmc. sebun (cf. O.S. sibun, O.N. sjau, O.E. seofon, O.Fris. sowen, siugun, O.H.G. sibun, Du. zeven), Lat. septem, Oscan seften, Gk. ἑπτά, Skr. saptá, Av. hapta, Pers. haft, Osset. avd, Toch. ṣpät (ṣäрtа-)/ṣukt, Arm. evt'n, O. Pruss. septīnjai, Lith. septynì, Ltv. septin̨i, O.C.S. sedmĭ, O.Russ. семь, Polish siedem, Gaul. sextan, O.Ir. secht. Welsh saith. Alb. shtatë (from septmtí-), Kamviri sut; Hitt. šipta-.

VIII. For PIE óktō(u), eight, older *h₃ekteh₃, compare Gmc. akhto(u) (cf. Goth. ahtau, O.N. átta, O.E. eahta, O.H.G. ahto), Lat. octō, Osc. uhto, Gk. οκτώ, Skr. aṣṭa, Av. ašta, O.Pers. ašta, Toch. okät/okt, Arm. ut', O.Pruss. astōnjai, Lith. aštuoni, Ltv. astoņi, OCS osmĭ, Russ. восемь, Polish osiem, Gaul. oxtū, O.Ir. ocht, Welsh wyth, Alb. tëte, Kam. uṣṭ; Lyc. aitãta-.

For common ordinal oktowós, or newer imitative formations okt(o)tós, oktomós, compare Gmc. akhtothaz (cf. Eng. eighth, Ger. achte, Du.,Fris. achtste, Swe. åttonde), Lat. octavus (but cf. Fr. huitième), Gk. ógdoos, Russ. (в)осьмой, Cz. osmý, Ir. ochtú, Welsh wythfed, Bret. eizhvet.

X. For PIE dékm(t) [‘de-km̥], ten, compare Gmc. tekhun (cf Goth. taihun, O.S. tehan, O.N. tíu, O.Fris. tian, O.E. tīen, O.Du. ten, O.H.G. zēhen), Lat. decem, Osc. deken, Umb. desem, Gk. δέκα, Skr. daśa, Av. dasa, Pers. datha, Dacian dece-, Toch. śäk/śak, Arm. tasn, O.Pruss. desīmtan, Lith. dešimt, Ltv. desmit, O.C.S. desętĭ, Russ. десять, Polish dziesięć, Gaul. decam, O.Ir. deich, Welsh deg, Alb. dhjetë/dhetë, Kam. duc.

[156] This is the general situation in PIE (cf. e.g. for “twelve”, Ved.Skr. dvdaśa, Lat. duodecim, Gk. δώδεκα, Ir. dó dheag, etc.), although some dialectal differences are found:

For PIE leiq, leave, compare Gmc. laikhwnjan (cf. Goth. leiƕan, O.N. ljá, O.E. lǣnan O.H.G. līhan, Eng. lend, Ger. leihen), Lat. linquō, Gk. leipō, Skr. riṇakti, Av. raexnah, Pers. rēxtan, Arm. lk'anem, O.Pruss. polijcki, Lith. likti, Ltv. likt, Russ. olek, O.Ir. léicid. Common derivatives include ekléiqtis/ekléiqsis, eclipse, ellipsis, Gk. ἔλλειψις; o-grade lóiqnis, loan, as Gmc. laikhwniz (cf.O.N. lān, Eng. loan), loiqnio, lend, as Gmc. laikhwnjan, ; nasalized linqo, leave, as Lat. linquere, in delinqénts, delinquent, relinqo, relinquish, relí(n)qā, relic, etc.

c. It is believed that in some Germanic dialects an inflected form of -dekm- was possibly used (cf. O.E. -tēne, -tīne, -týne, Eng. -teen), maybe IE *-dekmis.

[157] The suffix -k(o)mt, ten times, comes probably ultimately from zero-grade *dkmt, from dékm(t), ten, and is found as Lat. -gintā, Gk. -konta; it is also found in Germanic full-grade dékmtos, tenth, Gmc. teguntha- (cf. O.E. teogotha, tēotha, Eng. tenth, tithe).

[158] For IE (d)wīkmtī, twenty, originally then *dwi-dkomt-, compare Lat. vīgintī, Gk. είκοσι, Skr. viṅśati, Av. visaiti, Pers. بيست (bēst), Toch. wiki/ikäṃ, Arm. k'san, Gaul. vocontio, O.Ir. fiche, Welsh ugain, Alb. njëzet/njizet, Kamviri vici. For newer formations in Balto-Slavic, as MIE dwo+dekm, cf. Lith. divdesmit, Russ. двадцать, Pol. dwadzieścia, Cz. dvacet, Sr.-Cr., Bul. dvadeset, Slo.,Slk. dvajset, Rom. douăzeci.

The usual (uninflected) Germanic and Balto-Slavic common form túsntī, “massive number” hence “thousand”, gave Gmc. thusundi (cf. Goth. þusundi, O.N. þúsund, O.E. þūsunt, O.Fris. thusend, O.H.G. þūsunt, Du. duizend), Toch. tumane/tmām, Lith. tūkstantis, Ltv. tūkstots, OCS tysǫšti, Russ. тысяча, Polish tysiąc. It is possibly related to PIE tew, swell, and some linguists reconstruct it as older *tūs-kmtī->*túsmtī/túsomtī, “swollen hundred”.

[159] For IE verb pel, fold, compare o-grade nouns póltōn, fold, as Gmc. falthan (cf. Goth. falþan, O.N. falda, O.E. faldan, fealdan, M.L.G. volden, Ger. falten), and combining forms -póltos, as Gmc. -falthaz (cf. Goth. falþs, O.N. -faldr, O.E. -feald, -fald, Ger. -falt), and -plos, as Lat. -plus, Gk. -πλος, -πλόος, also as Gk. πολύς, still used in modern Greek. Extended IE base pleks, plait, gives o-grade plóksom, flax, as Gmc. flakhsam (cf. O.E. fleax, O.Fris. flax, Ger. Flachs), full-grade -pleks, -fold, in compounds such as dúpleks, trípleks, mĺtipleks, etc., and as verb plekā, fold, plicate, Lat. plicāre, in adplekā, apply, komplekā, complicate, kómpleks, complice, eksplekā, deploy, deksplekā, deploy, display, enplekā, involve, implicate, employ, enplekitós, implicit, replekā, replicate, reply; suffixed plekto, weave, plait, entwine, as Lat. plectere, p.part. pleksós (from *plekttos), as in pléksos, plexus, ampleksos, amplexus, komplektio, entwine, kompleksós, complex, perpleksós, confused, perplexed; Greek plektós, twisted.

[160] For PIE mónoghos (root menegh-), much, many, compare Gmc. managaz (cf. Goth. manags, O.S. manag, O.E. monig, manig, O.Fris. manich, Swed. mången, Du. menig, Ger. manch), O.C.S. munogu, Russ. много, Cz. mnoho, O.Ir. menicc, Welsh mynych. The compound mónoghopóltos, manifold, is common to Germanic dialects, cf. Goth. manag-falþs, O.E. monigfald (Anglian), manigfeald (W.Saxon), O.Fris. manichfald, M.Du. menichvout, Swed. mångfalt, etc.

[161] For PIE first person eg, égō, (and Indo-Iranian égom), compare Gmc. ek (cf. Goth. ik, O.Fris. ik, O.E. Ic, O.N. ek, O.H.G. ih, Norw. eg, Dan. jeg, Eng. I, Ger. ich), Lat. ego, Umb. eho, Gk. έγώ, Av. azəm, O.Lith. еš, O.Pruss.,Ltv. es, O.C.S. азъ, O.Russ. язъ, O.Pol. jaz, Kam. õc; Hitt. uk, Carian uk. Dialectal Skr. aham, Ven. eχо, could show a variant form *égho(m), while Slavic аzъ and Anatolian ug forms show maybe another old o-grade variant *ṓgo, although this is disputed. Derivatives from inflected me(ghi) include Gmc. me(ke) (cf O.N., Goth. mik, O.E. me, mec, O.H.G. mih), Lat. me, Umb. mehe, Ven. mego, Gk. eme, Skt. mam, Av. mam, Russ. mne, O.Ir. mé, Welsh mi, Alb. mua, etc.

[162] For PIE we(i), we, compare Gmc. wiz (cf. Goth. wit, weis, O.S. wi, O.N. vit, vér, O.E. wē, O.Fris. wi, O.H.G. wir, Dan. vi, Du. wij), Skr. vayam, Av. vaēm, O.Pers. vayam, Toch. was/wes, Lith. vedu, Hitt. wēs. For inflected IE ns-, nos, compare Gmc. uns- (cf. Goth. unsar, ugkis, ON oss, okkr, O.E., us, uncer, O.S., O.Fris. us, O.H.G. unsih, unser, Swed. oss), Lat. nōs, Gk. no, Skr. nas, Av. nō, O.Pers. amaxām, Toch. nás, O.Pruss. noūson, Lith. nuodu, Russ. nas, Polish nas, O.Ir., Welsh ni, Alb. ne; Hitt. anzās.

[163] For Indo-European tu, you (sg.), and its inflected forms, compare Gmc. thu (cf. Goth. þu, O.N. þú, O.E. þu, O.H.G. thu, Eng. thou, Ger. du), Lat. tū, Osc. tuvai, Umb. tu, Gk. su, Skr. tvam, Av. tū, O.Pers. tuva, Toch. tu/tuwe, Arm. tu, O.Pruss. toū, Lith. tu, Ltv. tu, O.C.S.,Russ. ty, Polish ty, O.Ir. tú, Welsh ti, Alb. ti, Kam. tü; Hitt. tuk.

[164] PIE ju(s), you (pl.), gives Gmc. iuwiz (cf. Goth. jus, O.N. yor, O.S. iu, O.E. [g]ē-ow, O.Fris. iu-we, M.Du. u, O.H.G. ir, iu-wih), Gk. humeis, Skr. yūyam, Av. yūžəm, Toch. yas/yes, Arm. dzez, O.Pruss. ioūs, Lith. jūs, Ltv. jūs. For variant (inflected) wos, us-, compare Lat. vōs, Umb. uestra, Skr. vas, Av. vō, O.Pruss. wans, Russ. vy, vas, Polish wy, was.

[165] Indo-European reflexive s(w)e gave Goth. sik, O.N. sik, O.H.G. sih, Ger. sich, Lat. sē, sibi, Oscan sífeí, Umbrian seso, Gk. heos, Skr. sva, Av. hva, Phryg. ve, Arm. ink's, O.Pruss. sien, sin, Lith. savo, Ltv sevi, O.C.S. se, Russ. sebe, -sja, Alb. vetë; Carian sfes, Lyd. śfa-. Derivatives include suffixed sélbhos, self, Gmc. selbaz (cf. Goth. silba, O.N. sjalfr, O.E. seolf, sylf, O.Fris. self, Du. zelf, O.H.G. selb), s(w)ebh(ó)s, “one’s own”, blood relation, relative, as Gmc. sibjas (cf. Goth. sibja, O.S. sibba, O.E. sibb, O.Fris., M.Du. sibbe, O.H.G. sippa, Eng. sib, Ger. Sippe); suffixed swóinos, “one's own (man)”, attendant, servant, also sheperd, as Gmc. swainaz (cf. O.N. sveinn, O.E. swan, O.S. swen, O.H.G. swein, Eng. swain); suffixed s(u)w-, as in suwikīdā, sucide, and swṓmis, “one's own master”, owner, prince, as Skr. svāmī; extended sed, sē, without, apart (from “on one's own”); suffixed o-grade sōlós, by oneself alone, Lat. sōlus, as in sōlitariós, solitary, desōlā, desolate; suffixed swēdhsko, accustom, get accustomed, as Lat. suēscere, as in komswēdhsko, accustom, p.part. komswē(dhsk)tós, in komswētū́dōn, consuetude, custom, deswētū́dōn, desuetude, manswētū́dōn, mansuetude; suffixed extended swetarós, comrade, companion, as O.Gk. hetaros; suffixed form sweinós, self, as O.Ir. féin, as in Sinn Fein; suffixed swétos, from oneself.

Some linguists connect the pronoun to an older PIE root swe- meaning family, in turn related with su, be born, which would have frozen in ancient times through composition in words like sw-esor, lit. “woman of the own family” (from sw-, “family, own” and ésor-, woman), as opposed to the generic ésōr or cénā, woman.

[166] For PIE deuk, lead, also “pull, draw”, compare Gmc. teuhan (cf. O.E. tēon, O.H.G. ziohan, Eng. tug, Ger. ziehen, Zug); zero-grade suffixed dúkā, draw, drag, Gmc. tugōn (cf. O.E. togian, Eng. tow); suffixed o-grade doukeio, bind, tie; dóukmos, descendant, family, race, brood, hence “team”, as Gmc. tauhmaz, O.E. tēam, and denominative verb doukmio, beget, teem, as Gmc. taukhmjan, O.E. tēman, tīeman; basic form gives Latin derivatives déuks, duke, apdeuko, abduct, addeuko, adduce, aqadeuktos, aqueduct, kirkomdéuktiōn, circumduction, komdeuko, conduce, conduct, dedeuko, deduce, deduct, ekdeuko, educe, endeuko, induce, entrodeuko, introduce, prodeuko, produce, redeuko, reduce, sedeuko, seduce, supdeuko, subdue, trantsdeuko, traduce, and from zero grade is ekdukā, lead out, bring up, educate, as Lat. ēducāre.

[167] For PIE so, this, as O.E. se (later replaced by th-, in the), Gk. ho, he, Skt. sa, Avestan ha, O.Ir. so, had also a Germanic feminine sj, “she”, Gmc. sjō, as O.E. sēo, sīe. A common loan word is variant form sei- in compound with ki, here, giving séiki, thus, so, in that manner, as Lat. sīc (cf. for Romance “yes”, Fr. si, It. sì, Spa.,Cat. sí, Pt. sim). From inflected form to are Gmc. thē (cf. O.E. the, M.Du. de, Ger. der, die), L. ta[lis], Gk. to, Skr. ta-, Bal.-Sla. to, also alternative Greek borrowing tauto-; from neuter tod is Gmc. that; from accusative tām are adverbial Latin tmdem, at last, so much, tandem, and tmtos, so much, and from its reduced form tā- is suffixed tlis, such;

[168] From PIE i are derivatives jénos (see éno), that, yon, as Gmc. jenaz (cf. Goth. jains, O.N. enn, O.Fris. jen, O.H.G. ener, M.Du. ghens, O.E. geon, Ger. jener), and as extended jend-, jéndonos, yond, yonder, beyond, as Gmc. jend(anaz), O.E. geond(an); extended form ji gives O.E. gēa, Ger., Dan., Norw., Sw. ja, Eng. yeah; relative stem jo plus particle gives jóbho, “doubt”, if, as Gmc. jaba (cf. O.E. gif, O.N. ef, if, O.Fris. gef, O.H.G. ibu, iba, Ger. ob, Du. of); basic form i, Lat. is, neuter id, it, and ídem, same, as in idemtikós, identical, idémtitā, identity, idemtidhakā, identify; suffixed íterom, again, iterā, iterate, reiterā, reiterate, ítem, thus, also.

For MIE reconstructed līg, body, form, like, same, compare Germanic derivatives kolgos, “like”, having the same form, lit. “with a corresponding body”, as Gmc. galikaz (cf. Goth. galeiks, O.S. gilik, O.N. glikr, O.E. gelic, Du. gelijk, Ger. gleich), analogous, etymologically, to MIE kombhórmis, Lat. conform; verb līgio, please, as Gmc. likjan (cf. Goth. leikan, O.N. lika, O.E. lician, O.Fris. likia, O.H.G. lihhen).

[169] For ko, ki, here, compare as Gmc. khi- (cf. Goth. hita, ON hér, O.E. hit, he, her, O.H.G. hiar, Eng. it, he, here), Lat. cis, Lith. šis; Hitt. kāš, Luw. zaš. Also, a common particle ke is found, as in O.Lat. hon-ce (Lat. hunc), Gk. keinos (from ke-eno), also Hitt. ki-nun, “now”.

[170] PIE éno, there, include derivatives Gmc. jenos (in compound with i), Skr. ena-, anena, O.C.S. onu, Lith. ans.

[171] Common loan word Latin murus, “wall”, comes from O.Lat. moiros, moerus, i.e. MIE loans móiros/mū́ros, with common derivatives mūralis, of a wall, and n.pl. muráliā, as Fr. muraille, Spa. muralla, Eng. mural. This word is used normally in modern Indo-European languages to refer to an “outer wall of a town, fortress, etc.”, as Ger. Mauer, Du. muur, Sca. mur, Fr. mur, It.,Spa.,Pt. muro, Ca. mur, Lith. muras, Pol. mur, Ir. mur, Bret. mur, Alb. mur, etc., while most IE languages use another word for the “partition wall within a building”, as MIE wállom, wall, rampart, row or line of stakes, a collective from wállos, stake, as Lat. uallum, uallus (cf. O.E. weall, O.S., O.Fris., M.L.G., M.Du. wal, Swe. vall, Da. val, Ger. Wall), MIE pariéts, as Lat. paries, parietis (cf. It. parete, Spa. pared, Pt. parede, Rom. perete), MIE stinā (cf. O.C.S. stena, Russ. стена, Sr.-Cr.,Slo. stena, Cz. stěna, Pol. ściana, also compare loans Ltv. siena, Lith. siena, Finn. seinä, Est. sein).

[172] For PIE peig, also peik, cut, mark (by incision), compare derivatives péik(o)lā, cutting tool, file, saw, as Gmc. fīkh(a)la (cf. O.E. feol, fil, O.H.G. fila, M.Du. vile, Eng. file, Ger. Feile), Lith. pela, O.C.S. pila; nasalized zero-grade pingo, embroider, tattoo, paint, picture (presumably from “decorate with cut marks” to “decorate” to “decorate with color”), as Lat. pingere, in p.part. pingtós, painted, pingtora, painting, picture, pingmentom, pigment, depingo, depict; suffixed zero-grade form pikrós, sharp, bitter, as Gk. pikros; o-grade poikilós, spotted, pied, various, as Gk. poikilos. Compare, with the sense of “mark, decorate”, Skr. pingaḥ, pesalaḥ, pimsati, O.C.S. pisati, pegu, “variegated”, O.H.G. fehjan “adorn”, Lith. piesiu “write”.

[173] For PIE ed, eat, originally bite, compare Gmc. (pro)etan (cf. Goth. itan, ON eta, O.E. etan, fretan, O.H.G. ezzen, frezzan, M.Du. eten), Lat. edere, as in edibhilis, edible, komedo, comedo, Lat. comedere, p.part. komedtós/komestós, as in komestibhilis; compound prám(e)diom, “first meal”, lunch (from prām, first), as Lat. prandium; suffixed edunā, pain (from “gnawing care”), as Gk. odunē. Compare Lat. edō, Osc. edum, Gk. edō, Skr. ad, Av. ad, Thrac. esko-, Toch. yesti, Arm. utel, O.Pruss. ist, Lith. ėsti, Ltv. ēst, Russ. jest', Polish jeść, O.Ir. esse; Hitt. at, Luw. ad-, az-, Palaic ata-.

Proto-Indo-European donts (old gen. dentós), tooth, originally present participle *h¹dent, “biting”, gives Gmc. tanth-tunth (cf. Goth. tunþus, O.E. tōð , pl. teð, cf. O.N. tönn, O.S. tand, O.Fris. toth, O.H.G. zand, Dan., Swed., Du. tand, Ger. Zahn), Lat. dentis, Gk. odous/donti, Skr. dantam, Pers. dandān, Lith. dantis, Russ. desna, O.Ir. dét, Welsh dant, Kam. dut. Modern derivatives include Germanic dńtskos, canine tooth, tusk (cf. O.E. tux, tusc, O.Fris. tusk), Latin dentalis, dental, dentístā, dentist, endentā, indent, tridénts, trident, and Greek -odonts, odonto-, as Gk. odōn, odous.

[174] Proto-Indo-European gal, call, shout, gave expressive gallo, as Gmc. kall- (cf. O.N. kalla, O.E. ceallian, O.H.G. halan, Eng. call), also found in Latin noun gallos, cock (< “the calling bird”), as Skr. usakala, “dawn-calling”, M.Ir. cailech, (but also associated with Gallus, Gallic, as if to mean “the bird of Gaul”), in gallinakiós, gallinaceous; gálsos, voice, as O.C.S. glasŭ, as in glasnost; also, reduplicated gálgalos, word, as O.C.S. glagolu. Also found in Gk. kaleo, kelados, Lith. kalba, “language”.

[175] For Proto-Indo-European verbal root pō(i), drink, compare common derivatives Lat. pōtāre, pōtus, bibō, Umb. puni, Gk. πί̄νω, πόσις, Gk.Lesb. πώνω (Fut. πίομαι, Aor. ἔπιον, Impf. πῖθι, Perf. πέπωκα), O.Ind. píbati, pītás, pītíṣ, also рti, рāуáуаti, рáуаtē, Thrac. pinon, Arm. əmpelik', O.Pruss. poutwei, poieiti, Lith. puotà, Sla. pī- (cf. O.C.S. pitijĭ, piju, O.Russ. пити, Pol. pić, piju, Cz. píti, piji, Sr.-Cr. пи̏ти, пи̏jе̑м, Slo. píti, píjem, etc.), O.Ir. ibim, Welsh yfed, Alb. pi (aor. рīvа); Hitt. pas. For MIE common words, compare pōtós, drunk, as Lat. pōtus, in pōtā, drink, Lat. pōtāre; suffixed zero-grade pótis, drink, drinking, in ksunpótiom, “with drinking”, feast, banquet, symposium, as Gk. συμπόσιον, and further suffixed Latin pṓtiōn, a drink, potion, as Lat. pōtiō, or; zero-grade pros, feast, as O.C.S. pirŭ (cf. also general zero-grade pī, Sla. pij-, “drink”); suffixed nasal pīno, drink, as Gk. pīnein; suffixed pṓtlom, drinking vessel, cup, bowl, as Skr. pātram; suffixed reduplicated zero-grade pipo-, whence pibo, drink, as O.Ind. píbati, Sla. pivo, also in Lat. bibere, where it is assimilated to bibo.

A common term for “beer”, thus, could be Modern Indo-European neuter píbom, as both common European words are derived from PIE reduplicated verb pibo, compare Lat. bibere (cf. O.E. beor, O.N. bjórr, Du.,Fris.,Ger. bier, Ice. bjór, Fr. bière, It.,Cat. birra, Rom. bere, Gk. μπίρα, Pers. abejo, Bul. бира, Ir. beoir, Welsh bîr, Bret. bier, Alb. birrë, also Hebrew bîrah, Turkish bira, Arabic bīra, Jap. bīru, Chinese píjiǔ/bihluh, Maori pia, Thai biya, Malay bir, Indonesian bir, Swahili, Vietnamese bia), and Slavic pivo (cf. Russ.,Ukr. пиво, Pol. piwo, Cz.,Sr.-Cr. pivo, Bel. піва, Mac. пиво, also Mongolian пиво, Azeri pivo, etc.). For other terms, compare MIE áluts, ale, as Gmc. aluth (cf. O.E. ealu, O.S. alo, O.N.,Sca. øl, Ice. öl, Ltv.,Lith. alus, O.C.S. olu, Slo. ol, Rom. olovină, also Est. õlu, Finn. olut), perhaps from a source akin to Lat. alumen, “alum”, or to PIE root alu, a root with connotations of “sorcery, magic, possession, intoxication”. Another term comes from Cel.-Lat. cerevisia -> cervesia (cf. Spa. cerveza, Pt. cerveja, Occ.,Cat. cervesa, Gal. cervexa, Filipino, Tagalog servesa, Ilongo serbisa, Cebuano sirbesa, Tetum serveja, etc.), in turn from agricultural Goddess Lat. Ceres, from PIE ker, grow, and possibly Lat. vis, “strength”, from IE wros, man.

For PIE ker, grow, compare kérēs, as Lat. Cerēs, goddess of agriculture, especially the growth of grain, in kereális, cereal; extended form krē-, in krēiā, bring forth, create, produce (< “to cause to grow), create, as Lat. crēāre, also in prōkrēiā, procreate, krēitis/krēitiōn, creation; suffixed krēsko, grow, increase, as Lat. crēscere, in krēskénts, crescent, komkrēsko, grow together, harden, p.part. komkrētós, in komkrētā, concrete, adkrēsko, accrue, dekrēsko, decrease, enkrēsko, increase, rekrēsko, increase, also recruit, ekskrēsko, grow out, in ekskrēskéntiā, excrescence, p.part. ekskrētós, grown out, in ekskrētā, separate, purge; suffixed o-grade kórwos, “growing”, adolescent, boy, son, and korw, girl, as Gk. kouros, koros, and korē; compound smkērós, “of one growth”, sincere (from zero-grade sm-, same, one), as Lat. sincērus.

[176] For PIE root lew, wash, cf. Lat. lauāre, Gk. louein, Gaul. lautro, Arm. loganam/lokanam, O.Ir. lóathar, Welsh luddw, Hitt. lahhuzzi. Compare derivatives lóukā, as Gmc. laugō (cf. O.N. laug, O.E. lēðran, O.H.G. louga, Eng.lather, Ger. Lauge); from Latin variant lawo, zero-grade -lwo in compounds, are dilúwiom, deluge, adlúwiōn, alluvion, komlúwiom, colluvium, eklúwiom, eluvium, etc.; from athematic lawā are lawātósiom, lavatory, lawābho, lawātrnā, lātrnā, bath, privy, as Lat. lātrīna, etc.

[177] The verb ‘to be’ in Old English was a compound made up of different sources. Bēon and wesan were the two infinitive forms, though they were only used in certain tenses (mixed with original PIE es). Bēon was used in the present tense to express permanent truths (the ‘gnomic present’), while wesan was used for the present participle and the preterite. In addition, there was a set of ‘simple present’ forms, for which no infinitive existed.

[178] For PIE men, think, compare zero-grade suffixed (ko)mńtis, mind, as Gmc. (ga)munthiz (cf. Goth. muns, O.N. minni, O.E. gemynd, Ger. minne), Lat. mēns (ment-), in mntalis, mental, demntis, dement, mńtis/mńtiōn, remembrance, mention; also, mntós, “willing”, as Gk. -matos, as in automntikós, automatic; suffixed mnio, be mad, as Gk. mainesthai, and mńios, spirit, as Av. mainiius; also fem. mńiā, madness, mania, as Gk. maniā, in mniakós, maniac; full-grade méntiā, love, as Gmc. minthjō (cf. O.H.G. minna, M.Du. minne); reduplicated mimno, remember, as Lat. meminisse, in miméntōd, memento (imperative), kommimnisko, contrive by thought, as Lat. comminīscī, kommentáriom, comment, remimnisko, recall, recollect, remimniskents, reminiscent; mántis, seer, as Gk. mantis; méntros, counsel, prayer, hymn, as Skr. mantraḥ; suffixed ménes, spirit, as Gk. menos; o-grade causative moneio, remind, warn, advise, as Lat. monēre, in mónitis/mónitiōn, monition, mónitōr, monitor, mónstrom, portent, monster, admoneio, admonish, demonstrā, demonstrate, premonítis/premonítiōn, supmoneio, summon; suffixed Montuā, Muse, as Gk. Mousa, giving Greek loan-translations and Latin loan words monsaikos, mosaic, as Gk. Μωσαϊκός, monseiom/musēum, museum, as Gk. μουσεῖον, mónsikā/músikā, music, as Gk. μουσική; extended mnā, reduplicated mimnāsko, remember, as Gk. mimnēskein, giving mnāstós, remembered, nmnāstós, “not remembered”, from which nmnāstía, oblivion, amnesty, as Gk. ἀμνηστία, and nmnsiā, amnesia, mnmn, memory, as Gk. mnẽma, mnmōn, mindful, mnamonikós, mnemonic, mnmā, memory, as Gk. mnēmē; also, from IE verb phrase mens dhē, “set mind”, is compound noun mńsdhē, wise, as Av. mazdā-.

Publisher	: Asociación Cultural Dnghu
Pub. Date	: July 2007
ISBN	: 978-84-611-7639-7
Leg. Dep.	: SE-4405-2007 U.E.
Pages	: 390

stops	-	K-	G-	G^h-
-	[HR]e[RH]	K[R]e[RH]	G[R]e[RH]	G^h[R]e[RH]
-K	[HR]e[RH]K	-	G[R]e[RH]K	G^h[R]e[RH]K
-G	[HR]e[RH]G	K[R]e[RH]G	-	G^h[R]e[RH]G
-G^h	[HR]e[RH]G^h	K[R]e[RH]G^h	G[R]e[RH]G^h	G^h[R]e[RH]G^h*

PGk	: Proto-Greek
Gk.	: (Ancient) Greek
Phryg.	: Phrygian
Thr.	: Thracian
Dac.	: Dacian
Ven.	: Venetic
Lus.	: Lusitanian
A.Mac.	: Ancient Macedonian
Illy.	: Illyrian
Alb.	: Albanian

IE	: Indo-European
IE II	: Middle PIE or PIH
PIH	: Proto-Indo-Hittite
IE III	: Late PIE
PIE	: Proto-Indo-European
EIE	: Europe’s Indo-European
MIE	: Modern Indo-European

PII	:Proto-Indo-Iranian
*Ind.*	: Proto-Indo-Aryan
O.Ind.	: Old Indian
Skr.	: Sanskrit
Hind.	: Hindustani
Hi.	: Hindi
Ur.	: Urdu
*Ira.*	: Proto-Iranian
Av.	: Avestan
O.Pers.	: Old Persian
Pers.	: Persian
Kur.	: Kurdish
Oss.	: Ossetian
Kam.	: Kamviri

Ita.	: Proto-Italic
Osc.	: Oscan
Umb.	: Umbrian
Lat.	: Latin
O.Lat.	: Archaic Latin
V.Lat.	: Vulgar Latin
L.Lat.	: Late Latin
Med.Lat.	: Mediaeval Latin
Mod.Lat.	: Modern Latin
O.Fr.	: Old French
Prov	: Provenzal
Gl.-Pt.	: Galician-Portuguese
Gal.	: Galician
Pt.	: Portuguese
Cat.	: Catalan
Fr.	: French
It.	: Italian
Spa.	: Spanish
Rom.	: Romanian

PAn	: Proto-Anatolian
CA	: Common Anatolian
Hitt.	: Hittite
Luw.	: Luwian
Lyc.	: Lycian
Pal.	: Palaic
Lyd.	: Lydian

PGmc.	: Pre-Proto-Germanic
Gmc.	: Proto-Germanic
Goth.	: Gothic
Frank.	: Frankish
*Sca.*	: Scandinavian (North Germanic)
O.N.	: Old Norse
O.Ice.	: Old Icelandic
O.S.	: Old Swedish
Nor.	: Norwegian
Swe.	: Swedish
Da.	: Danish
Ice.	: Icelandic
Fae.	: Faeroese
*W.Gmc.*	: West Germanic
O.E.	: Old English (W.Saxon, Mercian)
O.Fris.	: Old Frisian
O.H.G.	: Old High German
M.L.G.	: Middle Low German
M.H.G.	: Middle High German
M.Du.	: Middle Dutch
Eng	: English
Ger.	: German
L.Ger.	: Low German
Fris.	: Frisian Dutch
Du.	: Dutch
Yidd.	: Yiddish (Judaeo-German)

BSl.	: Balto-Slavic
*Bal.*	: Proto-Baltic
O.Lith.	: Old Lithuanian
O.Pruss.	: Old Prussian
Lith.	: Lithuanian
Ltv.	: Latvian
*Sla.*	: Proto-Slavic
O.C.S.	: Old Church Slavonic
O.Russ.	: Old Russian
O.Pol.	: Old Polish
Russ.	: Russian
Pol.	: Polish
Cz.	: Czech
Slo.	: Slovenian
Slk.	: Slovak
Ukr.	: Ukrainian
Bel.	: Belarusian
Bul.	: Bulgarian
Sr.-Cr.	: Serbo-Croatian

Cel.	: Proto-Celtic
Gaul.	: Gaulish
O.Ir.	: Old Irish
Sco.	: Scottish Gaelic
Ir.	: Irish Gaelic
Bret.	: Breton
Cor.	: Cornish
O.Welsh	: Old Welsh

Phoneme	Greek	Latin	Persian	Armenian	Cyrillic	Devan.
[a]	Α α	A a		Ա ա	А а	अ
[e]	Ε ε	E e		Ե ե	E e	ए
[o]	Ο ο	O o		Ո ո	О о	ओ
[]	Ᾱ ᾱ	Ā ā	ﺍ	Ա ա	Ā ā	आ
[]	Η η	Ē ē		Է է	Ē ē	ऐ
[]	Ω ω	Ō ō		Ո ո	Ō ō	औ

[i]	Ι ι	I i		Ի ի	И и	इ
[]	Ῑ ῑ	Ī ī	ی	Ի ի	Ӣ ӣ	ई
[u]	Υ υ	U u		Ւ ւ	У у	उ
[]	Ῡ ῡ	Ū ū	و	Ւ ւ	Ӯ ӯ	ऊ

[r̥]	Ρ ρ	R r	ﺭ	Ռ ռ	Р р	ऋ (ॠ)
[l̥]	Λ λ	L l	ل	Լ լ	Л л	ऌ(ॡ)
[m̥]	Μ μ	M m	م	Մ մ	М м	म
[n̥]	Ν ν	N n	ن	Ն ն	Н н	ण

Labials	p, b, bh
Dentals	t, d, dh
Velars	k, g, gh; q, c, ch

Phonet. System	Labials	Coronals	*Palatovelars	Velars	Labiovelars	*Laryngeals
Voiceless	p	t	*k^j	k	k^w
Voiced	b	d	*g^j	g	g^w
Aspirated	b^h	d^h	*g^jh	g^h	g^wh
Nasals	m	n
Fricatives		s , z				h₁, h₂, *h₃
Liquids		r , l
Approximant	u̯		i̯

[] as in father	[a] as in idea
[] as in they	[e] as in met
[] as in meet	[i] as in chip
[] as in note	[o] as in pot
[] as in rude	[u] as in put

i as in vein	u e (met) + u (put)
i as in oil	u as ow in know
i as in Cairo	u as ou in out

IE stem	Meaning	Example with -s	without -s
(s)kap-	tool	Gk. skeparnion	Lat. capus
(s)kel-	crooked	Ger. Schielen	Gk. kolon
(s)kep-	cut, scrape	Eng. scab	Lat. capulare
(s)ker-	cut	Eng. shear, sheer	Lat. curtus
(s)ker-	bend	Eng. shrink	Lat. curvus
(s)kleu-	close	Ger. schließen	Lat. claudere
(s)qalo-	big fish	Lat. squalus	Eng. whale
(s)tewd-	thrust	Goth. stautan	Lat. tundo
(s)mer-	remember	Skr. smarati	Eng. mourn
(s)nē-	spin	Ir. snáthad	Eng. needle
(s)melo-	small animal	Eng. small	Gae. mial
(s)neu-	tendon, sinew	Gk. neuron	Skr. snavan
(s)peik-	magpie	Ger. Specht	Lat. pica
(s)pek-	spy, stare	O.H.G. spehon	Alb. pashë
(s)plei-	split	Eng. split, splinter	Eng. flint
(s)perg-	sparrow	O.Eng. spearwa	Lat. parra
(s)tea-	stand	Lat. sto, Eng. stand	Ir. ta
(s)ten-	thunder	O.H.G. donar	O.Sla. stenjo
(s)twer-	whirl	Eng. storm	Lat. turba

*EIE*	*PGmc.*	*Gothic*	*O.Eng.*	*Latin*	*English (Lat.)*
patḗr, father	faðer	fadar	fæder	pater	father (paternal)
septṃ, seven	sibun	sibun	seofon	septem	seven (September)
trabs, dwelling, room	þurp-	þaurp	þorp	trabs/trabēs	thorp (trabecula)
globiō, hold, clench	klupjō	-	clyppe	globus	clip (globe)
bhrātēr, brother	brōþēr	brōþar	brōþor	frāter	brother (fraternal)
bherō, carry	berō	baira	bere	ferō	bear (infer)
wertō, turn	werþō	wairþa	weorþe	uertō	worth (versus)
trejes, three	þrejez	þreis	þrēo	trēs	three (trinity)
dekṃ, ten	texan	taihun	ten,tien	decem	ten (decimal)
edō, eat	etō	ita	ete	edō	eat (edible)
dhēmi, do, make	dōmi	-	dōm	faciō (<*dha*-k-iō)	do (factor)
dhersō, be adroit	dersō	ga-darsa	dearr	festus (<*dhers-tos*)	dare (manifest)
leuk-, light	leux-	liuh-	lēoh-	lūc-	light (lucid)
kṛd, heart	xert-	hairt-	heort-	cord-	heart (core)
augō, increase	aukō	auka	eacie	augeō	eke (augment)
gn-, know	kunnō	kunna	cunne	(g)nōtus	can (notice)
ghostis, guest	gastiz	gasts	gæst, giest	hostis	guest (hostile)
bhrgh-, mountain	burg-	bairga-	beorg	fortis (O.Lat. forctus)	barrow (force)
leiq-, leave	leix^w-	līhwa	læne	līqu-	lend (relic)
qi-/qo-, what, who	h^wi-/h^wo-	hwi-/hwa-	hwi-/hwæ-	qui-/quo-	why/what (quote)
cemiō, come	k^wemjō	k^wima	-cwem-	ueniō	come (venue)
cwós, alive	k^wi(k)waz	k^wius	cwic	uīuus	quick (vivacity)
lech-, light	lextaz	līhts	līht, lēoht	leuis	light (levity)
chormós, warm	warmaz	warm-	wearm	formus	warm (furnace)

Ablaut grade	EIE	Greek		Case
*e-grade or full grade*	pa-ter-ṃ	πα-τέρ-α	pa-tér-a	Accusative
*lengthened e-grade*	pa-tḗr	πα-τήρ	pa-tḗr	Nominative
*zero-grade*	pa-tr-ós	πα-τρ-ός	pa-tr-ós	Genitive
*o-grade*	ṇ-pá-tōr-ṃ	ἀ-πά-τορ-α	a-pá-tor-a	Accusative
*lengthened o-grade*	ṇ-pa-tōr	ἀ-πά-τωρ	a-pá-tōr	Nominative

	PIE	root (per-)	suffix (-tu)
Nominative	*per*-tu-s	e-grade	zero-grade
Accusative	*per*-tu-m	e-grade	zero-grade
Genitive	pr-téu-s	zero-grade	e-grade
Dative	pr-t(eu)-ei	zero-grade	e-grade

Vowel Grade	Full (F)	Zero (Ø)	Lengthened (L)
e/o - Ø - ē/ō	*ped, dom*	pd, dm	pēd, dōm
ie/io - i - iē/iō	*djeus*	*diwos/djus*	djē-
ue/uo - u - uē/uō	*kwon*	*kun*-	kwōn
ei/oi - u/i - ēi/ōi	*bheid*	*bhid*	bhēid
eu/ou - u/i - ēu/ōu	*bheud, ous*	*bhud*, us	bhēud, *ōus*
ā/ē/ō - a - ā/ē/ō	*bhle, bha, oku*	*bhla, bha, aku*	*bhlē, bhā, ōku*
au/ai - u/i - āu/āi	*bhau, aik*	*bhu*	bhāu, *āik*
ēi/ōi - ū/ī - ēi/ōi	po(i)	pi	pōi

Decl.	Stem ending	Nom.	Genitive
1.	ā, ia/ī/iā (ē, ō)	-Ø	-s
2.	e/o (*Thematic*)	-s	-os, -os(i)o, (-ī)
3.	i, u and Diphthong	m., f.-s, n.-Ø	-e/*ois*, -e/*ous, -(t)ios, -(t)uos*
4.	Sonants & Consonants	-s, -Ø	-(e/o)s
(5)	Heteroclites	-Ø, -r	-(e)n

	*Singular*	*Plural*
NOM.	-s, -Ø, (n. Them -m)	m., f. -es, n. -
ACC.	-m/-m̥	m., f. -ms/-m̥s; n. -
VOC.	-Ø	m., f. -es, n. -
GEN.	-(e/o)s; -(e/o)s(i)o	-m (dial -ēm)
*OBL*.	-i- (general Obl. mark)	-bh-i-, (dialectal -m-i-); -s-i/u
DAT.	-ei	-bh(i)os, (dial. -*mos*)
LOC.	-i	-su/i
INS.	-e, -bhi	-*bhis, (dial. -mis);-ōis* (Them.)
ABL.	-(e/o)s; -ēd/-ōd/-ād	-bh(i)os, (dial. -mos)

	*Animate*	*Inanimate*
NOM.	-Ø	-Ø
ACC.	-m
VOC.	-Ø
GEN.	-s
DAT.	-i
LOC.	-i
INS.	-Ø, -*bhi, (-mi)*
ABL.	-ād, (-s)

	f. ekwā	f. potnia/potnī	f. spekiē-	adj. f. *cowij*ā
NOM.	ekwā	potni/potnī	spekiēs	cowij
ACC.	ekwām	potnim/potnīm	spekiēm	cowijm
VOC.	ekw	potni/potnī	spekiē	cowij
GEN.	ekwās	potniās	spekiēs	cowijs
DAT.	ekwāi	potniāi	spekiei	cowiji
LOC.	ekwāi	potniāi	spekiei	cowiji
INS.	ekwā	potniā	spekiē	cowij
ABL.	ekwād	potniās	spekiēd	cowijd

	f. ekwā	f. potnia/*potn*ī
NOM.	ekwās	potnias/potnīs
ACC.	ekwāms	potniams/potnīms
VOC.	ekwās	potnias/potnīs
GEN.	ekwm	potnim
DAT.	ékwābhios	pótniabhios
LOC.	ékwāsi	pótniasu
INS.	ékwābhis	pótniabhis
ABL.	ékwābhios	pótniabhios

Distribution of language families in the 20th century. 1.2. Traditional Views

II. Kurgan Hypothesis & Proto-Indo-European languages

1.7. Indo-European Dialects of Europe

I. Europe’s Indo-European

A. Germanic

B. Latin

C. Celtic

D. Slavic

E. Baltic

F. Fragmentary Dialects

Messapian

Venetic

Ligurian

Liburnian

Lusitanian

II. Northern Indo-European in Asia: Tocharian

1.7.2. Southern Indo-European Dialects

I. Greek

II. Armenian

III. Indo-Iranian

A. Iranian

B. Indo-Aryan

C. Nuristani

I. Albanian

II. Paleo-Balkan Languages

A. Phrygian

B. Illyrian

B. Thracian

C. Dacian

E. Paionian

F. Ancient Macedonian

1.8. Modern Indo-European

2.7. Vowel Change

2.8. Consonant Change

2.9. Peculiarities of Orthography

3.4. Gender

4.1. Declension of Nouns

4.7. Vocalism before the Declension

4.9. Accent in Declension

5.2. The Motion

5.4. Comparison of Adjectives

5.5.5. Numeral Adverbs

6.7. Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns

7.2.5. Separable Verbs

I. The Thematic Conjugation

II. The Athematic Conjugation

7.4.1. The Four Stems

7.4.2. The Present Stem

I. Present Stem Formation Paradigm

II. Present Root Stem

III. Present Reduplicated Stem

IV. Present Consonant Stem

V. Present Vowel Stem

7.4.3. The Aorist Stem

I. Aorist Stem Formation Paradigm

II. Aorist Root Stem

III. Aorist Reduplicated Stem

IV. Aorist Consonant Stem

Distribution of language families in the 20^th century.

1.2. Traditional Views

	m. wlqo	n. jugo
NOM.	wḷqos	jugóm
ACC.	wḷqom	jugóm
VOC.	wḷqe	jugóm
GEN.	wḷqosio	jugós
DAT.	wḷqōi	jugṓi
LOC.	wḷqoi	jugói
INS.	wḷqō	jugṓ
ABL.	wḷqōd	jugṓd

	m. wlqo-	n. jugo-
NOM.	wḷqōs	jugá
ACC.	wḷqōms	jugá
VOC.	wḷqōs	jugá
GEN.	wḷqōm	jugṓm
DAT.	wĺqobhios	jugóbhios
LOC.	wĺqōisi	jugóisu
INS.	wḷqōis	jugóis
ABL.	wĺqobhios	jugóbhios

	Type I		Type II		Neuter
	f. owi-	m. sūnu-	f. noq-ti-	m. *sen*ā-tu-	n. *mori*-	n. peku-
NOM.	owis	sūnus	noqtis	senātus	mori	peku
ACC.	owim	sūnum	noqtim	senātum	mori	peku
VOC.	owi	sūnu	noqti	senātu	mori	peku
GEN.	owéis	sūnous	noqtios	senātuos	morois	pekeus
DAT.	owéi	sū́nouei	noqtei	sentouei	moréi	pékouei
LOC.	owí	sū́noui	noqtí	senātui	morí	pekui
INS.	ow	sūnū	noqtī	senātū	morī	pekū
ABL.	owéis	sūnous	noqtios	senātuos	morois	pekeus

	f. *bhr*ū-[152]	f. dṇghū-3	f. swekrū-132	f. dhī-
NOM.	bhrūs	dṇghūs	swekrū́s	dhīs
ACC.	bhrūm	dṇghūm	swekrū́m	dhijṃ
VOC.	bhrū	dṇghū	swekrū́	dhī
GEN.	bhruwés	dṇghuwós	swekruwés	dhijós
DAT.	bhruwéi	dṇghuwéi	swekruwéi	dhijéi
LOC.	bhruwí	dṇghuwí	swekruwí	dhijí
INS.	bhrū(bhi)	dṇghū́(bhi)	swekrū́(bhi)	dhij(bhi)
ABL.	bhruwés	dṇghuwós	swekruwés	dhijós

	m. cōu-115	m. djēu-63
NOM.	cōus	djēus
ACC.	cōm	djēm/dijḗm
VOC.	cou	djeu
GEN.	cous	diwós
DAT.	cowéi	diwéi
LOC.	cowí	djewi/diwí
INS.	coū	djeū
ABL.	cous	diwós

	f. owi-	m. sūnu-	f. bhrū-	m. cou-
NOM.	owes	sūnes	bhruwes	cowes
ACC.	owims	sūnums	bhrūms	coums
VOC.	owes	sūnes	bhruwes	cowes
GEN.	owjom	sū́nuwēm	bhruwōm	cowōm
DAT.	ówibhios	sū́numos	bhrūbhos	coubhios
LOC.	ówisi	sū́nusu	bhrūse	cousi
INS.	ówibhis	sū́numis	bhrūbhis	coubhis
ABL.	ówibhios	sū́numos	bhrūbhos	coubhios

	*Occlusive*, -m, -l	-r, -n, -s
NOM.	-s	-Ø (long vowel)
ACC.	-ṃ
VOC.	-Ø	-Ø (full grade)
GEN.-ABL.	-e/os
DAT.	-ei
LOC.	-i
INS.	-bhi, (-mi)

	m. ped-	m. dōnt-	n. kṛd-
NOM.	pōds	dōnts	kṛd
ACC.	pōdṃ	dōntṃ	kṛd
VOC.	pōd	dōnt	kṛd
GEN.	pedés	dentós	kṛdós
DAT.	pedéi	dentéi	kṛdéi
LOC.	pedí	dentí	kṛdí
INS.	pedbhí	dentmí	kṛdbhí
ABL.	pedós	dentós	kṛdós

	m. kwon	f. mā*ter*	n. genes	n. nmṇ	adj. m. *ndhergenes*
NOM.	kwōn	mātḗr	genōs	nmṇ	ṇdhergenḗs
ACC.	kwonṃ	māterṃ	genōs	nmṇ	ṇdhergenesṃ
VOC.	kwon	mātér	genōs	nmṇ	ṇdhergenés
GEN.	kunés	mātrós	genesós	nmṇós	ṇdhergeneses
DAT.	kunéi	mātréi	geneséi	nmṇéi	ṇdhergenēsei
LOC.	kwoni/kuní	māt(é)rí	genesí	nmṇí	ṇdhergenēsi
INS.	kunmí	mātrbhí	genesmí	nmṇbhí	ṇdhergenēsmi
ABL.	kunós	mātrós	genesós	nmṇós	ṇdhergenēsos

	m. kwon	f. mā*ter*	n. genos	m. dōnt-	n. *nomn*-
NOM.	kwones	māteres	génesa	dōntes	nōmṇa
ACC.	kwonṃs	mātṛṃs	génesa	dōntṃs	nōmṇa
VOC.	kwones	māteres	génesa	dōntes	nōmṇa
GEN.	kunóm	mātrṓm	genesṓm	dōntóm	nōmṇóm
DAT.	kunmós	mātrbhiós	genesbhós	dōntbhiós	nōmṇbhiós
LOC.	kunsú	mātṛsú	genessí	dōntsí	nōmṇsí
INS.	kunmí	mātṛbhís	genesbhís	dōntbhís	nōmṇbhís
ABL.	kunmós	mātṛbhiós	genesbhiós	dōntbhiós	nōmṇbhiós